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Search Results (4,207)

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Keywords = ISO 10993-4

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9 pages, 295 KiB  
Article
Credible Uncertainties for Natural Gas Properties Calculated from Normalised Natural Gas Composition Data
by Adriaan M. H. van der Veen
Methane 2025, 4(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/methane4010001 (registering DOI) - 25 Dec 2024
Abstract
The evaluation of measurement uncertainty of natural gas properties calculated from composition data are an essential aspect of fiscal metering in the trade of natural gas. For conformity assessment, and in gas allocation, it is essential to have a reliable value for the [...] Read more.
The evaluation of measurement uncertainty of natural gas properties calculated from composition data are an essential aspect of fiscal metering in the trade of natural gas. For conformity assessment, and in gas allocation, it is essential to have a reliable value for the uncertainty. This need is also reflected in, e.g., ISO 6976, the standard for computing natural gas properties, which follows the requirements of the “Guide to the expression of uncertainty in measurement” much more closely. Normalised compositions and their associated standard uncertainties do not suffice for this purpose. A novel algorithm is provided to recover these correlations from the normalised fractions and associated standard uncertainties, enabling the industry work with the data already stored in their repositories. The standard uncertainties are reproduced within 2%, which is acceptable for uncertainty calculations. The correlation coefficients obtained from the recovery algorithm agree with the ones obtained by normalisation. Full article
12 pages, 430 KiB  
Article
The Influence of Rice Types and Boiling Time on Glycemic Index: An In Vivo Evaluation Using the ISO 2010 Method
by Anna Vîrlan, Lidia Coșciug, Dinu Țurcanu and Rodica Siminiuc
Foods 2025, 14(1), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14010012 (registering DOI) - 25 Dec 2024
Abstract
Effective blood glucose management is essential for individuals with type 1 diabetes, particularly when dietary adjustments involve staple foods like rice. As a primary carbohydrate worldwide, rice significantly influences the glycemic index (GI) based on its type and cooking method. This study investigated [...] Read more.
Effective blood glucose management is essential for individuals with type 1 diabetes, particularly when dietary adjustments involve staple foods like rice. As a primary carbohydrate worldwide, rice significantly influences the glycemic index (GI) based on its type and cooking method. This study investigated the impact of rice type and boiling duration on the GI in healthy adults using an in vivo approach aligned with ISO 2010 standards. The glycemic response to four rice types (white round-grain, parboiled medium-grain, white long-grain, and whole-grain long-grain) was measured through postprandial blood glucose levels under both standard and extended boiling conditions to assess their implications for dietary glycemic control. Ten healthy participants (mean age 25 years, body mass index (BMI) 23.0 ± 1.6 kg/m2) consumed rice samples containing 50 g of available carbohydrates, prepared under controlled boiling conditions. Postprandial glycemic response was measured at regular intervals over 2 h following ingestion, with glucose solution as a reference food. The GI was calculated based on the incremental area under the glycemic response curve for each rice sample. Extended boiling significantly increased the GI across all rice types. White round-grain rice exhibited the highest relative increase (+15.8%) in the GI, while whole-grain long-grain rice, despite showing a greater percentage increase (+25.4%), maintained the lowest overall GI due to its high amylose and fiber content. Rice types with higher amylopectin content demonstrated faster glycemic responses and higher GI compared to high-amylose types. This study highlights rice type and cooking time as critical factors influencing postprandial glycemic response. Shorter boiling durations may benefit individuals requiring strict glycemic control, particularly those with diabetes, underscoring the importance of personalized dietary guidance for managing glycemic outcomes effectively. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Food Analytical Methods)
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<p>GI variation in rice samples depending on boiling time. WRGR—white round-grain rice; PWMGR—parboiled white medium-grain rice; WLGR—white long-grain rice; WGLGR—whole-grain long-grain rice.</p>
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19 pages, 7394 KiB  
Article
Application of a Gyroid Structure for Thermal Insulation in Building Construction
by Beata Anwajler, Jerzy Szołomicki and Paweł Noszczyk
Materials 2024, 17(24), 6301; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17246301 - 23 Dec 2024
Abstract
This paper concerns research into the use of 3D-printed gyroid structures as a modern thermal insulation material in construction. The study focuses on the analysis of open-cell gyroid structures and their effectiveness in insulating external building envelopes. Gyroid composite samples produced using DLP [...] Read more.
This paper concerns research into the use of 3D-printed gyroid structures as a modern thermal insulation material in construction. The study focuses on the analysis of open-cell gyroid structures and their effectiveness in insulating external building envelopes. Gyroid composite samples produced using DLP 3D-printing technology were tested to determine key parameters such as thermal conductivity (λ), thermal resistance (R) and heat transfer coefficient (U) according to ISO 9869-1:2014. In addition, the authors carried out a comprehensive analysis of the annual energy balance of four different residential buildings, including older and modern structures, using Arcadia software v9.0. The results showed that 100 mm-thick multi-layer gyroid structures achieve exceptionally low thermal conductivity (approximately 0.023 W/(m·K)), significantly outperforming traditional materials such as mineral wool or polystyrene foam in terms of insulation efficiency. These structures also have high mechanical strength and low density, making them both lightweight and highly durable. As a result of these properties, the structures studied represent a promising solution for designing energy-efficient buildings, effectively reducing heating energy demand and improv the overall energy balance of buildings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Advanced Composites)
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<p>Grasshopper algorithm for the creation of gyroid structures.</p>
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<p>Design of an example of the inner core of a sample with a single layer of material.</p>
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<p>Layering of samples with a thickness of 60 mm: (<b>a</b>) one layer and (<b>b</b>) three layers.</p>
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<p>Graphical interpretation of the experimental data determining the influence of input factors (insulation thickness and composite layering) on the value of thermal conductivity of a composite with gyroidal structure.</p>
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<p>Graphical interpretation of the experimental data determining the influence of input factors (insulation thickness and composite layering) on the value of thermal resistance of a composite with gyroidal structure.</p>
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<p>Graphical interpretation of the experimental data determining the influence of input factors (insulation thickness and composite layering) on the value of heat transfer coefficient of a composite with gyroscopic structure.</p>
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<p>Photographs of the buildings selected for energy analyses: (<b>a</b>) old house, (<b>b</b>) new house, (<b>c</b>) old flat, (<b>d</b>) new flat.</p>
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<p>Assumed climatic conditions for the locations considered. The graph shows a typical meteorological year for the cities of Kłodzko (<b>A</b>) and Wrocław (<b>B</b>).</p>
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<p>Visualisation of a cross-section of an external wall insulated with 3D-printed gyroidal insulation: (<b>a</b>) two-layer wall, (<b>b</b>) three-layer wall. Markings: 1—Masonry load-bearing elements—ceramic, 2—Thermal insulation layer made of 3D-printed gyroid, 3—Covering layer made of perforated brick.</p>
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<p>Percentage reduction in usable energy demand in relation to reference buildings (existing building) for each variant of thickness and layering of the proposed thermal insulation material.</p>
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19 pages, 4130 KiB  
Article
Identification and Bioactivity Analysis of a Novel Bacillus Species, B. maqinnsis sp. nov. Bos-x6-28, Isolated from Feces of the Yak (Bos grunniens)
by Qiang Ma, Xin Xiang, Yan Ma, Guangzhi Li, Xingyu Liu, Boai Jia, Wenlin Yang, Hengxia Yin and Benyin Zhang
Antibiotics 2024, 13(12), 1238; https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics13121238 - 23 Dec 2024
Abstract
Background: The identification of novel bacterial species from the intestines of yaks residing on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau is pivotal in advancing our understanding of host–microbiome interactions and represents a promising avenue for microbial drug discovery. Methods: In this study, we conducted a polyphasic [...] Read more.
Background: The identification of novel bacterial species from the intestines of yaks residing on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau is pivotal in advancing our understanding of host–microbiome interactions and represents a promising avenue for microbial drug discovery. Methods: In this study, we conducted a polyphasic taxonomic analysis and bioactive assays on a Bacillus strain, designated Bos-x6-28, isolated from yak feces. Results: The findings revealed that strain Bos-x6-28 shares a high 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity (98.91%) with B. xiamenensis HYC-10T and B. zhangzhouensis DW5-4T, suggesting close phylogenetic affinity. Physiological and biochemical characterizations demonstrated that Bos-x6-28 could utilize nine carbon sources, including D-galactose, inositol, and fructose, alongside nine nitrogen sources, such as threonine, alanine, and proline. Analysis of biochemical markers indicated that Bos-x6-28’s cell wall hydrolysates contained mannose, glucose, and meso-2,6-diaminopimelic acid, while menaquinone-7 (MK-7), phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), phosphatidylcholine (PC), and phosphatidylglycerol (DPG) were found in the cell membrane. The primary cellular fatty acids included C16:0 (28.00%), cyclo-C17:0 (19.97%), C14:0 (8.75%), cyclo-C19:0 (8.52%), iso-C15:0 (5.49%), anteiso-C15:0 (4.61%), and C12:0 (3.15%). Whole-genome sequencing identified a genome size of 3.33 Mbp with 3353 coding genes. Digital DNA–DNA hybridization (dDDH) and average nucleotide identity (ANI) analyses confirmed Bos-x6-28 as a novel species, hereby named B. maqinnsis Bos-x6-28 (MCCC 1K09379). Further genomic analysis unveiled biosynthetic gene clusters encoding bioactive natural compounds, including β-lactones, sactipeptides, fengycin, and lichenysin analogs. Additionally, in vitro assays demonstrated that this strain exhibits antibacterial and cytotoxic activities. Conclusions: These findings collectively indicate the novel Bacillus species B. maqinnsis Bos-x6-28 as a promising source for novel antibiotic and antitumor agents. Full article
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<p>Phylogenetic analysis of strain Bos-x6-28 based on 16S rRNA gene sequence using the neighbor-joining (NJ) method. The sequence numbers in parentheses represent the GenBank accession numbers of the corresponding strains. The scale bar indicates a 0.02 nucleotide divergence per site.</p>
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<p>Microscopic structure of strain Bos-x6-28. (<b>A</b>) Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) at 20,000× magnification, showing the detailed ultrastructure of Bos-x6-28. (<b>B</b>) Light microscopy at 1000× magnification after Gram staining, illustrating cellular morphology and Gram characteristics.</p>
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<p>Two-dimensional TLC analysis of phospholipid components in strain Bos-x6-28. (<b>A</b>) Ninhydrin staining; (<b>B</b>) Anisaldehyde staining; (<b>C</b>) Phosphomolybdic acid staining.</p>
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<p>Circular genome map of strain Bos-x6-28. The outermost ring denotes the genomic size, with each tick mark representing 5 kb. The second and third rings display genes on the positive and negative strands, respectively, with different colors indicating various COG functional classifications. The fourth ring represents repeat sequences. The fifth ring shows tRNA (blue) and rRNA (purple) genes. The sixth ring illustrates GC content, where light yellow areas indicate regions with GC content higher than the genome’s average, with peak heights corresponding to the extent of deviation from the mean; blue areas denote regions with GC content below the genomic average. The innermost ring represents the GC-skew, with dark gray indicating regions where G content exceeds C content, and red indicating regions where C content exceeds G content.</p>
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<p>Comparative genomic analysis of strain Bos-x6-28 and its closely related species. The outermost ring represents the strain origin and shared core gene clusters, followed by the geometric homogeneity index and functional homogeneity index. Subsequent rings display data for <span class="html-italic">B. safensis</span> subsp. <span class="html-italic">safensis</span> FO-36b, <span class="html-italic">B. pumilus</span> NCTC10337, <span class="html-italic">B. australimaris</span> NH7I-1, <span class="html-italic">B. altitudinis</span> 41KF2b, <span class="html-italic">B. zhangzhouensis</span> DW5-4, <span class="html-italic">B. xiamenensis</span> HYC-10, <span class="html-italic">B. safensis</span> subsp. <span class="html-italic">osmophilus</span> BC09, and Bos-x6-28. The heat map shows the ANI values among these strains, with all ANI values below 95% (indicated in pink), highlighting the genomic divergence among the strains.</p>
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<p>Bioactivity of secondary metabolites from strain Bos-x6-28. (<b>A</b>) Inhibitory activity against <span class="html-italic">B. subtilis</span>, with ampicillin as a positive control and methanol as a negative control. (<b>B</b>) Inhibitory activity against human liver cancer cells (HepG2), using DMSO as the blank control. Data are presented as mean ± SD, derived from three independent experiments conducted in triplicate. Statistical significance is indicated as *** <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001 compared to control cells, and **** <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.0001 compared to control cells (Wilcoxon <span class="html-italic">t</span>-test).</p>
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24 pages, 7694 KiB  
Article
Fluid Dynamic Assessment of Tall Buildings with a Variety of Complicated Geometries
by Rahul Kumar Meena, Ritu Raj, S. Anbukumar, Mohammad Iqbal Khan and Jamal M. Khatib
Buildings 2024, 14(12), 4081; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14124081 - 23 Dec 2024
Abstract
The exponential increase in population has led to a shortage of land for constructing tall buildings, resulting in the need to design irregular structures due to the limited availability of land. Assessing the impact of wind-generated effects can be achieved utilizing the Computational [...] Read more.
The exponential increase in population has led to a shortage of land for constructing tall buildings, resulting in the need to design irregular structures due to the limited availability of land. Assessing the impact of wind-generated effects can be achieved utilizing the Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) method, specifically employing ANSYS. This involves resolving the intricate fluid dynamics problem through numerical analysis using the ANSYS software. The validation study is performed on a standard shape-building model where the result is compared with experimental values and other international standards. The outcomes are presented in a graphical format, such as mean pressure, streamline, and pressure distribution in the vertical and horizontal planes. This research has studied four building models with equal area and height. Models A and B have regular shapes, while Models C and D exhibit an irregular ‘Y’ shape. The wind incidence angle was adjusted between 0 and 180 degrees at every 15-degree interval. The results were validated to ensure the accuracy of the numerical techniques employed. This involved performing validation and grid sensitivity analyses, which showed consistent results comparable to experimental data and established international standards. Model-C irregular-shaped buildings demonstrated the highest efficiency in minimizing wind loads among the building models examined in this study. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
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<p>Building models in plan and elevation.</p>
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<p>Meshing.</p>
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<p>Domain.</p>
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<p>C<sub>fx</sub> and C<sub>fy</sub> for model-A at different meshing sizes [<a href="#B51-buildings-14-04081" class="html-bibr">51</a>].</p>
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<p>Profile of average wind speed and turbulent intensity [<a href="#B51-buildings-14-04081" class="html-bibr">51</a>].</p>
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<p>Mean pressure coefficient comparsion with various international standards and experimental studies.</p>
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<p>Mean pressure coefficient comparsion with various international standards and experimental studies.</p>
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<p>The A, B, C, and D building models’ peripheral distances.</p>
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<p>The A, B, C, and D building models’ peripheral distances.</p>
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<p>The peripheral distance and the pressure distribution for Models A, B, C, and D together.</p>
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<p>The peripheral distance and the pressure distribution for Models A, B, C, and D together.</p>
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<p>The peripheral distance and the pressure distribution for Models A, B, C, and D together.</p>
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<p>The peripheral distance and the pressure distribution for Models A, B, C, and D together.</p>
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<p>Streamlines at different wind incidence angles in the model-C building plan.</p>
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<p>Streamlines for models A, B, C, and D are shown on both sides and in three-dimensional views.</p>
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<p>Streamlines for models A, B, C, and D are shown on both sides and in three-dimensional views.</p>
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<p>Iso-Surface for models A, B, C, and D based on ANSYS at a 0 degree wind incidence angle.</p>
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<p>Model A, B, C, and D’s plan diagram with facial nomenclature.</p>
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<p>Drag and lift force coeffcient for model-A, model-B, model-C, and model D.</p>
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<p>Base moment coeffcient for model-A, model-B, model-C, and model D.</p>
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15 pages, 3742 KiB  
Article
Constructing Safety Management Systems in Modern Industry and Trade Enterprises: A STAMP-Based Approach
by Xiaomeng Xu, Donghui Li, Guojun Huang, Ziheng Wang, Lingjie Zhu and Xinyi Ni
Sustainability 2024, 16(24), 11238; https://doi.org/10.3390/su162411238 - 21 Dec 2024
Viewed by 333
Abstract
With the burgeoning landscape of new enterprises and business paradigms, industrial and trade enterprises are facing escalating pressure to ensure operational safety. Conventional safety management mechanisms have proven to be inadequate for adapting to the dynamic market demands and intricacies of modern production [...] Read more.
With the burgeoning landscape of new enterprises and business paradigms, industrial and trade enterprises are facing escalating pressure to ensure operational safety. Conventional safety management mechanisms have proven to be inadequate for adapting to the dynamic market demands and intricacies of modern production environments. To improve safety management practices, this study integrates complex network theory to dissect the causal chains underlying accidents in industry and trade enterprises. A network model is established to elucidate the factors contributing to accidents and leverage datasets from safety inspections to construct a repository of latent safety risks. To address deficiencies in extant safety frameworks, a comprehensive safety management evaluation system is formulated, comprising ten primary evaluation indices and 30 secondary metrics. Based on the established frameworks, such as ISO 45001 for occupational health and safety management systems (OHSMS), standardized safety production protocols, and risk hierarchical management and control systems and hidden hazard identification and treatment systems (dual prevention systems), a holistic safety management system (SMS) is synthesized on the basis of system-theoretic accident model and process (STAMP) theory. This systematic approach culminates in a robust framework tailored to modern industrial and trade enterprises, fostering flexibility and efficacy in safety management capabilities. This case analysis underscores the model’s ability to enhance its safety management proficiency, thereby amplifying its relevance in fortifying enterprise operations and fostering sustainable growth. This study represents a pivotal step toward augmenting safety management capacities within the industrial and trade enterprises to safeguard enterprise vitality and advance sustainable business practices. Full article
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<p>Hierarchical safety management and control structure model.</p>
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<p>Network diagram of accident causes in industrial and trade enterprises (Red: accident; Yellow: Possible cause of the accident).</p>
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<p>Safety management evaluation index system.</p>
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<p>System construction process.</p>
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<p>Integration system element diagram.</p>
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<p>SMS framework based on the STAMP model.</p>
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20 pages, 1079 KiB  
Article
Machinery Regulation and Remanufacturing: A Link Between Machinery Safety and Sustainability
by Stefano Beneduce, Leonardo Vita, Luciano Cantone and Francesco Caputo
Machines 2024, 12(12), 941; https://doi.org/10.3390/machines12120941 - 21 Dec 2024
Viewed by 200
Abstract
On 14 June 2023, the European Parliament adopted Regulation (EU) 2023/1230 on machinery, which entered into force on 19 July 2023 (with some exceptions as per art. 54, according to a corrigendum issued to address a clerical error as regards the application dates [...] Read more.
On 14 June 2023, the European Parliament adopted Regulation (EU) 2023/1230 on machinery, which entered into force on 19 July 2023 (with some exceptions as per art. 54, according to a corrigendum issued to address a clerical error as regards the application dates in the original version) and shall apply from 20 January 2027, replacing the Machinery Directive 2006/42/EC. The main innovations/differences introduced by the Machinery Regulation (MR) compared to the Machinery Directive (MD) are critically analysed here, with a focus on sustainability issues. Some of these issues are covered by several international standards (such as BS 8887, ISO 10987 or DIN 91472), which also define the criteria and requirements for the remanufacturing process, although some technical gaps remain. Using the example of agricultural machinery, this paper proposes a methodology for determining the areas of acceptability for remanufactured products: these are expressed in terms of structural performance (e.g., the number of cycles ahead to failure expressed as the mutual of damage 1D=0.625) and the functional and safety requirements of the original machine. In this way, the issue of “substantial modification of machinery” is explored in terms of the safety obligations that the remanufactured machinery must fulfil. The paper is therefore a contribution to circular design by providing general criteria for the extension of the service life of machinery while at the same time considering safety issues. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Advanced Manufacturing)
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<p>The remanufacturing process of a mechanical product.</p>
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<p>Remanufacturing feasibility space as a function of product attributes.</p>
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<p>Sales trend of the machinery and its corresponding transmission.</p>
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13 pages, 1800 KiB  
Article
Mechanical Properties and Degree of Conversion of a Novel 3D-Printing Model Resin
by Long Ling, Theresa Lai and Raj Malyala
Polymers 2024, 16(24), 3562; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16243562 - 20 Dec 2024
Viewed by 292
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate the mechanical properties and degree of conversion of a novel 3D-printing model resin and compare it to eight commercially available model resins. An experimental resin formulated by our proprietary resin technology along with DentaModel, NextDent [...] Read more.
The aim of this study was to evaluate the mechanical properties and degree of conversion of a novel 3D-printing model resin and compare it to eight commercially available model resins. An experimental resin formulated by our proprietary resin technology along with DentaModel, NextDent 2, KeyModel Ultra, Rodin Model, Die and Model 2, DMR III, LCD Grey, and Grey Resin were used in this study. Parallelepiped specimens (2 × 2 × 25 mm, n = 5) were printed and measured for their flexural strength (FS), flexural modulus (FM), and modulus of resilience (MR) in accordance with ISO-4049. Dumbbell-shaped specimens (Type V, n = 5) were printed to test tensile strength (TS) and elongation according to ASTM-D638. Barcol hardness (BH) was measured based on ASTM D2583 using broken tensile strength specimens. Izod-type test specimens (3.2 × 12.7 × 63.5 mm, n = 10) were printed, notched, and determined for impact strength according to ASTM D256-10. The degree of conversion was measured using FTIR (n = 5). Data were analyzed using one-way ANOVA and post hoc Tukey tests (p ≤ 0.05). The experimental resin exhibited a similar or significantly greater flexural strength (88.8 MPa), modulus of resilience (2.13 MPa), tensile strength (54.4 MPa), and hardness (82.9) than most model resins (FS 62.6–90.1 MPa, MR 1.37–2.0 MPa, TS 36.3–54.6 MPa, BH 66.1–83.7). The elongation (6.2%) and impact strength (14.2 J/m) of the experimental resin are statistically the same as those of most resins (3.0–7.5%, 13.8–16.4 J/m). However, the experimental resin has a significantly lower flexural modulus (1.97 GPa) than most resins (2.18–3.03 GPa). The experimental resin exhibited a significantly higher degree of conversion (66.58%) than most resins (1.11–62.34%) for 40 s of light curing; however, a similar or higher value (84.87%) than most resins (72.27–82.51%) was obtained for 3D-printed objects. The newly formulated 3D-printing model resin exhibited adequate mechanical properties and degree of conversion, which is comparable to the commercially available 3D-printing model resin materials. The new 3D-printing model resin can be used for modeling applications in restoration, orthodontics, implants, and other cases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)
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<p>Flexural strength of 3D-printing model resin materials (values with the same superscript are not significantly different (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &gt; 0.05).</p>
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<p>Flexural modulus of 3D-printing model resin materials (values with the same superscript are not significantly different (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &gt; 0.05).</p>
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<p>Modulus of resilience of 3D-printing model resin materials (values with the same superscript are not significantly different (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &gt; 0.05).</p>
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<p>Tensile strength of 3D-printing model resin materials (values with the same superscript are not significantly different (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &gt; 0.05).</p>
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<p>Elongation at break of 3D-printing model resin materials (values with the same superscript are not significantly different (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &gt; 0.05).</p>
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<p>Barcol hardness of 3D-printing model resin materials (values with the same superscript are not significantly different (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &gt; 0.05).</p>
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<p>Impact strength of 3D-printing model resin materials (values with the same superscript are not significantly different (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &gt; 0.05).</p>
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<p>Degree of conversion of 3D-printing model resin materials (values with the same superscript are not significantly different (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &gt; 0.05).</p>
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14 pages, 11976 KiB  
Article
Tribological Characteristics of Biolubricant Obtained by Transesterification of Grape Seed Oil
by Thawan Fonseca Silva, Maria Marliete Fernandes de Melo Neta, Paulo Roberto Campos Flexa Ribeiro Filho, Francisco Murilo Tavares de Luna and Célio Loureiro Cavalcante
Lubricants 2024, 12(12), 459; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants12120459 - 20 Dec 2024
Viewed by 294
Abstract
Research on and the development of bio-based lubricants as alternatives to mineral-based lubricants have been encouraged worldwide owing to environmental concerns and the possible depletion of oil reserves. This study explored the use of grape seed oil (GSO), a byproduct of wine production, [...] Read more.
Research on and the development of bio-based lubricants as alternatives to mineral-based lubricants have been encouraged worldwide owing to environmental concerns and the possible depletion of oil reserves. This study explored the use of grape seed oil (GSO), a byproduct of wine production, as a raw material for biolubricant synthesis. GSO contains a triglyceride molecule rich in unsaturated fatty acids, which is ideal for obtaining biolubricants. This study addresses the technical challenges of converting GSO into a lubricant by synthesizing methyl esters (FAME) via transesterification with 2-ethylhexanol to produce a biolubricant (BL) sample. The obtained products were characterized using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy to confirm the conversion of the molecules. The density, kinematic viscosity, and viscosity index were determined using the parameters established by ASTM. The tribological characteristics of BL were evaluated using a four-ball tribometer configuration. BL exhibited physicochemical characteristics comparable with those of an ISO VG 10 lubricant, a friction coefficient (FC) 40.82% lower than that of a hydrotreated mineral oil sample, and a smoother wear surface. These results indicate that the polarity of the ester functional group was efficient in producing a protective film on metal surfaces. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tribological Properties of Biolubricants)
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<p>Synthetic route used to obtain methyl esters (FAME) from grape seed oil (GSO).</p>
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<p>Experimental setup for synthesis of bio-based lubricants.</p>
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<p>Synthetic route to obtain biolubricants (BL) from transesterification of FAME.</p>
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<p>Four-ball test configuration.</p>
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<p>FTIR spectra of GSO, FAME, and BL samples.</p>
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<p><sup>1</sup>H NMR spectra of (<b>a</b>) GSO, (<b>b</b>) FAME, and (<b>c</b>) BL samples.</p>
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<p>FC and WSD values of FAME, BL, and HMO after tribological test. <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05. Different letters indicate significant differences between WSDs.</p>
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<p>Sketches of the lubrication mechanisms of FAME, BL, and HMO at the friction interface. (<b>a</b>) The initial formation of the lubricating film of the bio-based samples (FAME and BL). (<b>b</b>) The rupture of unsaturated bonds of the bio-based samples (FAME and BL) and (<b>c</b>) HMO lubricating film.</p>
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18 pages, 6673 KiB  
Article
SOS3-3 Enhances the Salt Tolerance of Tomato Plants by Regulating ROS Balance
by Niannian Zhou, Jiahui Huang, Fangling Jiang, Enmei Hu, Xiaoming Song, Rong Zhou and Zhen Wu
Agronomy 2024, 14(12), 3044; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14123044 - 20 Dec 2024
Viewed by 243
Abstract
Salt stress affects the growth, metabolism, yield, and quality of crops. To adapt to high-salt environments, plants form various regulatory mechanisms. Salt over sensitive (SOS) is the key gene of SOS signal transduction pathway. As a member of the SOS3 subfamily, [...] Read more.
Salt stress affects the growth, metabolism, yield, and quality of crops. To adapt to high-salt environments, plants form various regulatory mechanisms. Salt over sensitive (SOS) is the key gene of SOS signal transduction pathway. As a member of the SOS3 subfamily, the function of SOS3-3 under salt stress has not been reported. To verify the function of SOS3-3 and the morphological and physiological parameters, the expression of genes related to stress were compared between the SOS3-3 overexpressed (OESOS3-3) and silenced tomato (VSOS3-3) at control and 10 days’ NaCl treatment. The results showed that, compared with the control (Ve), the plants of VSOS3-3 were shorter under salt stress, with curled leaves and abscission. The fresh and dry weights, Fv/Fm, total chlorophyll content, antioxidant enzyme activities, and proline content of VSOS3-3 significantly decreased, while the relative conductivity, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and Malondialdehyde (MDA) content of VSOS3-3 plants significantly increased compared to that of WT, respectively. Compared to the wild-type (WT), OESOS3-3 plants were less damaged by salt stress, with significantly higher plant height, fresh and dry weights, Fv/Fm, total chlorophyll content, antioxidant enzyme activity, and proline content. However, the relative conductance, H2O2, and MDA content were significantly lower in OESOS3-3 than WT. The expression levels of SOS1, SOS2, LKT1 (ion transport-related gene), APX1 (ROS signaling pathway-related gene), P5CS (osmoregulation-related gene), and ABF4 (ABA signaling pathway-related gene) were significantly lower in VSOS3-3 than Ve, but significantly higher in OESOS3-3 than in WT. These results suggested that SOS3-3 regulate salt tolerance by influencing physiological and biochemical changes and the expression of genes related to stress response. This study revealed the mechanism of SOS family participating in regulating tomato salt tolerance, providing a theoretical basis for improving tomato salt tolerance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Crop and Vegetable Physiology under Environmental Stresses)
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<p>Subcellular localization of the SOS3-3 protein of tomato. GFP: green fluorescence; D53-mCherry: nucleus marker (from left, the green, fluorescent channel; mCherry channel; bright channel; compound channel. From top, PR101 empty; connecting the PR101 of SOS3-3).</p>
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<p>Identification of V<span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> and OE<span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> plants. (<b>A</b>) 1. PCR amplification results of <span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> silent fragment of tomato; (<b>B</b>) phenotype of TRV2-<span class="html-italic">PDS</span> report plant; (<b>C</b>) the silencing efficiency of <span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> gene, the expression level of <span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> in VSOS3-3 plants; (<b>D</b>) 1. PCR amplification results of <span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> overexpression fragment; (<b>E</b>) genomic PCR analysis of OE<span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> transgenic lines; (<b>F</b>) expression levels of <span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> in T<sub>1</sub> generations for OE<span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> transgenic lines. M. DL2000 Marker. Data was the mean of three biological repeats ± standard error (SE). Different letters represented significant difference (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05).</p>
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<p>Growth changes of V<span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> and OE<span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> under salt stress. (<b>A</b>) Phenotypes of Ve and V<span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> under salt stress; (<b>B</b>) phenotypes of WT and OE<span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> under salt stress; (<b>C</b>) changes in plant height of Ve and V<span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> under salt stress; (<b>D</b>) changes in plant height of WT and OE<span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> under salt stress. Asterisks indicate significant differences between V<span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> and Ve as well as WT and <span class="html-italic">OESOS3-3</span>. *, <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05; **, <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01; ***, <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001, Student’s <span class="html-italic">t</span> test.</p>
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<p>Effects of <span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> silencing and overexpression on <span class="html-italic">F<sub>v</sub></span>/<span class="html-italic">F<sub>m</sub></span> and the total chlorophyll content of tomato under salt stress. (<b>A</b>) <span class="html-italic">F<sub>v</sub></span>/<span class="html-italic">F<sub>m</sub></span> of Ve and V<span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> under salt stress; (<b>B</b>) content of total chlorophyll of Ve and V<span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> under salt stress; (<b>C</b>) <span class="html-italic">F<sub>v</sub></span>/<span class="html-italic">F<sub>m</sub></span> of WT and OE<span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> under salt stress; (<b>D</b>) content of total chlorophyll of WT and OE<span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> under salt stress. Asterisks indicate significant differences between V<span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> and Ve as well as WT and <span class="html-italic">OESOS3-3</span>. *, <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05; **, <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01; ***, <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001, Student’s <span class="html-italic">t</span> test.</p>
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<p>Effects of <span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> silencing and overexpression on REC, MDA, and Pro content for tomato under salt stress. (<b>A</b>) Relative conductivity of Ve and V<span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> under salt stress; (<b>B</b>) MDA content of Ve and V<span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> under salt stress; (<b>C</b>) proline content of Ve and V<span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> under salt stress; (<b>D</b>) relative conductivity of WT and OE<span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> under salt stress; (<b>E</b>) MDA content of WT and OE<span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> under salt stress; (<b>F</b>) proline content of WT and OE<span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> under salt stress. Asterisks indicate significant differences between V<span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> and Ve as well as WT and <span class="html-italic">OESOS3-3</span>. *, <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05; **, <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01; ***, <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001, Student’s <span class="html-italic">t</span> test.</p>
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<p>Effects of <span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> silencing and overexpression on the expression level of <span class="html-italic">P5CS</span>, <span class="html-italic">APX1</span>, and ion transporters (<span class="html-italic">SOS1</span>, <span class="html-italic">SOS2</span>, <span class="html-italic">LKT1</span> and <span class="html-italic">ABF4</span>) in tomato under salt stress. (<b>A</b>) Relative expression of <span class="html-italic">P5CS APX1</span> and <span class="html-italic">SOS1</span>, <span class="html-italic">SOS2</span>, <span class="html-italic">LKT1</span>, and <span class="html-italic">ABF4</span> of Ve and V<span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> under salt stress, respectively; (<b>B</b>) relative expression of <span class="html-italic">P5CS APX1</span> and <span class="html-italic">SOS1</span>, <span class="html-italic">SOS2</span>, <span class="html-italic">LKT1</span> and <span class="html-italic">ABF4</span> of WT and OE<span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> under salt stress, respectively. Different letters represented significant difference (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05).</p>
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<p>Effects of V<span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> and OE<span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> on H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> content and antioxidant enzyme activity for tomato under salt stress. (<b>A</b>) H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> content and antioxidant enzyme activity of Ve and V<span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> under salt stress; (<b>B</b>) H<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub> content and antioxidant enzyme activity of WT and OE<span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> under salt stress. Asterisks indicate significant differences between V<span class="html-italic">SOS3-3</span> and Ve as well as WT and <span class="html-italic">OESOS3-3</span>. *, <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05; **, <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01; ***, <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001, Student’s <span class="html-italic">t</span> test.</p>
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11 pages, 708 KiB  
Article
Potential for Using Composts Produced from Agri-Food Industry Waste as Biocomponents of Liquid and Solid Fuels
by Aneta Sienkiewicz, Paweł Cwalina, Sławomir Obidziński, Małgorzata Krasowska, Małgorzata Kowczyk-Sadowy, Alicja Piotrowska-Niczyporuk and Andrzej Bajguz
Energies 2024, 17(24), 6412; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17246412 - 19 Dec 2024
Viewed by 305
Abstract
The growing awareness of the depletion of fossil fuels and numerous environmental issues have led to increased interest in finding natural components that can be used to produce various types of fuels. In this study, composts made from the organic fraction of agri-food [...] Read more.
The growing awareness of the depletion of fossil fuels and numerous environmental issues have led to increased interest in finding natural components that can be used to produce various types of fuels. In this study, composts made from the organic fraction of agri-food waste (i.e., two composts produced in a bioreactor and one obtained from a Municipal Waste Disposal Facility) were evaluated for the first time as potential sources of additives for fuel production. The presence of fatty acid methyl esters was determined using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS/SIM), while the calorific value and heat of combustion of the samples were measured in accordance with the PN-EN ISO 1928:2002 standard using a calorimeter. Chromatographic studies identified the presence of 33 compounds, predominantly unsaturated esters. The highest ester content was noted in the compost obtained from the company, while the lowest content was found in the compost containing grass, buckwheat husk, and apple pomace. Of the studied raw materials, the highest calorific value and heat of combustion on a dry matter basis were observed for the compost containing grass, buckwheat husk, and apple pomace, while the lowest values were recorded for the compost obtained from the company. Based on the obtained results, it can be concluded that composts could serve as biocomponents of fuels. Full article
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<p>Fatty acid methyl ester composition of the analyzed composts obtained from agri-food industry waste.</p>
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<p>Biplot of FAME contents in the compost samples, showing the first two principal components (PC1 and PC2) of the PCA model that together explain 73.5% of the total variance, i.e., 41.85% and 31.64% for PC1 and PC2, respectively. The blue biplot vectors indicate the strength and direction of factor loading for all the analyzed fatty acids. 1—garden compost, 2—buckwheat husk compost, 3—organic compost, 4—organic compost-pellets.</p>
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21 pages, 940 KiB  
Article
The Influence of Various Types of Functional Bread on Postprandial Glycemia in Healthy Adults
by Ewa Lange, Ewelina Pałkowska-Goździk and Paulina Kęszycka
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(24), 11900; https://doi.org/10.3390/app142411900 - 19 Dec 2024
Viewed by 285
Abstract
Bread is a crucial component of a balanced diet. Increasing the choice of functional bakery products based on whole grain flours, with the addition of seeds and grains, can improve health, including reducing postprandial glycemia and the risk of metabolic syndrome. The current [...] Read more.
Bread is a crucial component of a balanced diet. Increasing the choice of functional bakery products based on whole grain flours, with the addition of seeds and grains, can improve health, including reducing postprandial glycemia and the risk of metabolic syndrome. The current study attempted to characterize the relationship between the composition and nutritional value of 23 different types of functional bread and postprandial glycemic response values. This study involved 209 non-obese healthy volunteers aged between 18 and 50. The study protocol followed the standard glycemic index (GI) method outlined by the International Standard, ISO 26642:2010. Most of the examined bread had a low GI and was composed mainly of rye, oats, buckwheat flour with a sourdough starter, and oilseeds. Postprandial glycemia was negatively associated with the fat, protein, and fiber content of bread. However, the GI depended directly on the carbohydrate content and, inversely, on the fat content in wheat bread and bread containing oilseeds. Similarly, using whole-grain flour and sourdough in a functional bakery reduces the GI. Adding oilseeds and sourdough to bread also reduced blood glucose levels approximately one hour after a meal. A greater number of ingredients in a recipe may be associated with a higher GI. In designing a functional bread with a potentially beneficial effect on postprandial glycemia, the nutritional value, type of fermentation, and additives (type and number) are worth considering. The high variability in postprandial glycemia after bread consumption is related to several factors and requires GI determination according to standard methods to ensure that the information provided to the consumer is reliable. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food and Nutrition and New Dietary Trends for Human Health)
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<p>The course of the mean glycemic values for each group within two hours after the test product consumption (ANOVA, test LSD; <span class="html-italic">p</span> &gt; 0.05), mean ± SD.</p>
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<p>The course of the mean glycemic values for each group within two hours after the test product consumption. * indicate a significant difference between groups (ANOVA, test LSD; <span class="html-italic">p</span> ≥ 0.05); mean ± SD.</p>
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<p>The profile of the mean glycemic values for each group within two hours after the test product consumption; for variables with other letters, the difference is statistically significant between groups (ANOVA, test LSD, <span class="html-italic">p</span> ≥ 0.05); mean ± SD.</p>
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28 pages, 5425 KiB  
Article
Atmospheric Corrosion of Different Steel Types in Urban and Marine Exposure
by Luca Paterlini, Andrea Brenna, Federica Ceriani, Matteo Gamba, Marco Ormellese and Fabio Bolzoni
Materials 2024, 17(24), 6211; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17246211 - 19 Dec 2024
Viewed by 222
Abstract
The aim of the present work is to study the atmospheric corrosion behavior of metals exposed to both urban (Milan, IT-Lombardia) and marine (Bonassola, IT-Liguria) atmospheres in Italy. A number of coupons (100 × 150 mm) of carbon steel (CS), hot-dip galvanized steel [...] Read more.
The aim of the present work is to study the atmospheric corrosion behavior of metals exposed to both urban (Milan, IT-Lombardia) and marine (Bonassola, IT-Liguria) atmospheres in Italy. A number of coupons (100 × 150 mm) of carbon steel (CS), hot-dip galvanized steel (GS) and different grades of stainless steel (SS) were exposed. At fixed periods of time, samples were characterized by means of Linear Polarization Resistance (LPR), mass loss tests and corrosion product analysis. The corrosion rate on carbon steel exposed to an urban atmosphere, obtained by means of mass loss tests and LPR, are in good agreement with the value estimated by the dose–response function according to the ISO 9223 standard. The yielded results can be classified in corrosivity class C2 of the same ISO 9223. Similar measurements on galvanized steel exhibited a coherent average corrosion rate. Higher corrosion rates were measured for samples exposed to a marine atmosphere for both materials, with values belonging to exposure classes C4-C5 for both materials. Stainless steel samples exhibited only superficial staining in the case of marine exposure, even after just a few months. Full article
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<p>Racks exposed (<b>a</b>) on the roof of the Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering “Giulio Natta” of Politecnico di Milano and (<b>b</b>) outside the “MARECO” lab site (CNR—ICMATE) in Bonassola (SP).</p>
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<p>Average values of relative humidity and temperature in (<b>a</b>) Milan and (<b>b</b>) Bonassola exposure site for each month.</p>
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<p>Cumulative distribution function of free corrosion potentials (E<sub>corr</sub>) of carbon steel samples exposed in urban environment (Milan).</p>
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<p>Cumulative distribution function of corrosion rates (CRs) of carbon steel samples exposed in urban environment (Milan).</p>
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<p>Cumulative distribution function of free corrosion potentials (E<sub>corr</sub>) of galvanized steel samples exposed in urban environment (Milan).</p>
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<p>Corrosion rate values determined by means of LPR test on galvanized steel samples exposed in urban environment (Milan).</p>
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<p>Cumulative distribution function of corrosion rates (CRs) of galvanized steel samples exposed in urban environment (Milan).</p>
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<p>Cumulative distribution function of free corrosion potentials (E<sub>corr</sub>) of carbon steel samples exposed in marine environment (Bonassola).</p>
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<p>Cumulative distribution function of corrosion rates (CRs) of carbon steel samples exposed in marine environment (Bonassola).</p>
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<p>Cumulative distribution function of free corrosion potentials (E<sub>corr</sub>) of galvanized steel samples exposed in marine environment (Bonassola).</p>
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<p>Cumulative distribution function of corrosion rates (CRs) of galvanized steel samples exposed in marine environment (Bonassola).</p>
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<p>Picture of the stainless steel surface after 7 months of exposure in marine environment.</p>
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<p>Time evolution of carbon steel corrosion rate in urban environment: comparison between the ISO standard prediction and the experimental data.</p>
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<p>Benchmark analysis of the corrosion rates of carbon steel and zinc at urban field sites from the Exposure Site Catalogue of the European Federation of Corrosion (EFC). (<b>a</b>) Corrosion rate of carbon steel in urban environment; (<b>b</b>) Corrosion rate of galvanized steel in urban environment (<b>1</b>: AT, Linz; <b>2</b>: CZ, Kasperske Hory; <b>3</b>: CZ, Kopisty; <b>4</b>: CZ, Kralupy; <b>5</b>: CZ, Ostrava; <b>6</b>: CZ, Prague; <b>7</b>: DE, Berlin A103; <b>8</b>: DE, Berlin B1; <b>9</b>: DE, Berlin BAM; <b>10</b>: DE, Horstwalde; <b>11</b>: ES, Barcelona; <b>12</b>: FR, Le Croisty; <b>13</b>: GR, Athens; <b>14</b>: NO, Birkenes; <b>15</b>: NO, Oslo; <b>16</b>: NO, Svanvik; <b>17</b>: PL, Katowice; <b>18</b>: PT, Lisbon; <b>19</b>: PT, Lumiar; <b>20</b>: SE, Gällivare; <b>21</b>: SE, Ryda; <b>22</b>: IT, Milano; the GPS coordinates are available in the EFC catalogue).</p>
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<p>Benchmark analysis of the corrosion rates of carbon steel and zinc at marine field sites from the Exposure Site Catalogue of the European Federation of Corrosion (EFC). (<b>a</b>) Corrosion rate of carbon steel in marine environment; (<b>b</b>) Corrosion rate of galvanized steel in marine environment (<b>1</b>: DE, Helgoland IFAM; <b>2</b>: DE, Helgoland Seawater; <b>3</b>: DE, Helgoland Südhafen; <b>4</b>: DE, Helgoland Uplands; <b>5</b>: DE, Helgoland Seawater IFAM; <b>6</b>: DE, Helgoland-Westkaje; <b>7</b>: FR, Brest; <b>8</b>: IT, Genoa; <b>9</b>: NO, Tananger; <b>10</b>: PT, Alfanzina; <b>11</b>: PT, Sines; <b>12</b>: SE, Bohus-Malmön Kattesand; <b>13</b>: SE, Bohus-Malmön Kvarnvik; <b>14</b>: SE, Bohus-Malmön Kvarnvik 3; <b>15</b>: SE, Kristineberg; <b>16</b>: IT, Bonassola; the GPS coordinates are available in the EFC catalogue).</p>
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<p>XRD diffractogram of carbon steel samples exposed in Milan and Bonassola.</p>
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<p>XRD diffractogram of carbon steel samples exposed in urban (Milan) and marine (Bonassola) environments.</p>
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<p>Potentiodynamic polarization curves of carbon steel samples exposed in Milan at different exposure times.</p>
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<p>Potentiodynamic polarization curves of galvanized steel samples after 14 months of exposure in Milan.</p>
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18 pages, 25934 KiB  
Article
Determination of Strain and Stress Field in Screening Test for Concrete Fire Spalling—Passive Restraint Effect
by Katarzyna Mróz, Izabela Hager, Marcin Tekieli, Václav Kočí and João Castro-Gomes
Materials 2024, 17(24), 6210; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17246210 - 19 Dec 2024
Viewed by 300
Abstract
The paper examines the impact of passive restraint on fire-induced spalling in concrete, utilizing a concrete mixture to minimize compositional variability. A variety of specimen geometries was prepared, including standard cubes and cylinders for the determination of mechanical properties and slabs of different [...] Read more.
The paper examines the impact of passive restraint on fire-induced spalling in concrete, utilizing a concrete mixture to minimize compositional variability. A variety of specimen geometries was prepared, including standard cubes and cylinders for the determination of mechanical properties and slabs of different dimensions for fire spalling tests conducted under controlled conditions. A top-opening Dragon furnace, which applies ISO 834-1 fire curves, was used to evaluate the influence of “cold rim” boundaries, where slab edges were insulated to create thermal restraint. The cold rims were categorized as 0 cm, 10 cm, and 20 cm, with each modification representing a different degree of thermal expansion restraint. Digital image correlation (DIC) was utilized to monitor the strain fields on the unheated slab surfaces. The findings demonstrated that increasing the cold rim width implies a rise in compressive stress and strain in the central zone, thereby precipitating a more pronounced spalling behaviour. The unrestrained slabs (cold rim 0 cm) exhibited minimal spalling, whereas the restrained slabs (cold rim 20 cm) demonstrated significant spalling depths and volumes. The study confirms that thermal dilation restraint intensifies the severity of spalling and provides a quantitative framework that links stress evolution, strain distribution, and spalling depth. The findings emphasize the necessity of managing thermal restraint to properly assess fire-induced concrete spalling in material screening tests. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Construction and Building Materials)
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<p>Scheme of tested elements.</p>
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<p>(<b>a</b>) Complete experimental setup, (<b>b</b>) black dots pattern for reference set.</p>
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<p>The order of testing procedure with the use of DIC method.</p>
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<p>The stress–strain relationship and determination of the <span class="html-italic">σ</span>-<span class="html-italic">ε</span> formula.</p>
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<p>Cold rim 0 cm: maps of strains before the first event of spalling.</p>
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<p>Cold rim 0 cm: maps of maximum strains during spalling occurrence.</p>
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<p>Cold rim 0 cm: strain development at fire-unexposed surface by virtual extensometers: (<b>a</b>) Strains in the central part of the unheated surface (X and Y direction), (<b>b</b>) Strains in most external part in X direction.</p>
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<p>Cold rim 10 cm: maps of maximum strains during spalling events.</p>
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<p>Cold rim 20 cm: maps of maximum strains during spalling events.</p>
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<p>Cold rim 10 cm: strain development at fire-unexposed surface by virtual extensometers: (<b>a</b>) Strains in the central part of the unheated surface (X and Y direction), (<b>b</b>) Strains in most external part (cold rim) in X and Y direction; (<b>c</b>) Strains in most external part (cold rim) in X direction.</p>
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<p>Cold rim 20 cm: strain development at fire-unexposed surface by virtual extensometers: (<b>a</b>) Strains in the central part of the unheated surface (X and Y direction), (<b>b</b>) Strains in most external part (cold rim) in X and Y direction; (<b>c</b>) Strains in most external part (cold rim) in X and Y direction.</p>
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<p>Development of crack width in the cold rim of 10 cm during fire exposure tracked by virtual extensometers.</p>
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<p>Development of stress in slabs during fire exposure.</p>
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<p>Comparison of stress evolution among testing cases.</p>
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<p>Damage range caused by spalling in tested slabs.</p>
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<p>Comparison of measured max spalling depths and spalling volumes.</p>
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<p>DIC limitation. The water accumulation on the specimen’s surface disrupts the DIC measurements.</p>
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13 pages, 2971 KiB  
Article
Towards Accurate Biocompatibility: Rethinking Cytotoxicity Evaluation for Biodegradable Magnesium Alloys in Biomedical Applications
by Angela De Luca, Roberta Ruggiero, Aurora Cordaro, Benedetta Marrelli, Lavinia Raimondi, Viviana Costa, Daniele Bellavia, Elisabetta Aiello, Matteo Pavarini, Antonio Piccininni, Marco Tatullo, Elisa Boanini, Francesco Paduano and Gianluca Giavaresi
J. Funct. Biomater. 2024, 15(12), 382; https://doi.org/10.3390/jfb15120382 - 18 Dec 2024
Viewed by 394
Abstract
Magnesium and its alloys represent promising candidates for biomedical implants due to their biodegradability and mechanical properties, which are similar to natural bone. However, their rapid degradation process characterized by dynamic pH fluctuations and significant hydrogen gas evolution during biocorrosion adversely affects both [...] Read more.
Magnesium and its alloys represent promising candidates for biomedical implants due to their biodegradability and mechanical properties, which are similar to natural bone. However, their rapid degradation process characterized by dynamic pH fluctuations and significant hydrogen gas evolution during biocorrosion adversely affects both in vitro and in vivo assessments. While the ISO 10993-5 and 12 standards provide guidelines for evaluating the in vitro biocompatibility of biodegradable materials, they also introduce testing variability conditions that yield inconsistent results. To address these inherent characteristics of Mg alloys, developing improved methods that accurately simulate the physiological environment for in vitro biocompatibility testing is essential. This study introduces two novel extraction approaches for evaluating Mg alloys: a buffered solution utilizing PBS/DMEM with quaternary dilutions and a modified ISO standard protocol employing decuple dilution of conventional unbuffered extracts. The present findings establish that controlled optimization of extraction conditions, specifically buffer composition and dilution parameters, enables reliable in vitro cytotoxicity assessment of Mg alloys, providing a robust methodology that advances the preclinical evaluation of these promising biodegradable materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metals and Alloys for Biomedical Application)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>(<b>A</b>) Representative image of extract preparation through Method 1. The table shows the pH level at 0 and 72 h for each extract prepared using Method 1. (<b>B</b>) WST-1 viability assay on L929 cell lines to evaluate the effect of several compositions (PBS: DMEM) of the extraction vehicle through the Method 1 protocol (Mean ± SD, n = 4).</p>
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<p>(<b>A</b>,<b>B</b>) Representative image of Mg AZ31 samples during extract preparation. The table shows the pH value at 0 and 72 h for each extract prepared through Methods 1 (<b>A</b>) and 2 (<b>B</b>). (<b>C</b>,<b>D</b>) Each graph shows the concentration (intensity) of the Mg element (518.360 nm Mg line reference) in each extract analyzed. Analysis results are the average of three different determinations on two different replicates.</p>
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<p>WST-1 viability assay on L929 cell lines to evaluate the effect of several dilutions of 50%PBS:50%DMEM extract vehicle (Mean ± SD, n = 4).</p>
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<p>Schematic overview of two extraction methods (Method 1 and Method 2) evaluated using WST-1 and PrestoBlue viability assays in three different cell lines.</p>
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<p>Comparative analysis of the effect of two extraction methods on the viability of different cell lines. (<b>A</b>) WST-1 cell viability assay performed on L929, MG63, and MC3T3 cell lines; (<b>B</b>) PrestoBlue cell viability assay performed on L929, MG63, and MC3T3 cell lines. Statistical analysis revealed no significant differences in cell viability between the two extraction methods and only a significant reduction over time in MC3T3 measured with WST-1 (<span class="html-italic">diff</span> = −19.23, <span class="html-italic">F</span> = 22.56, <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.0005) and in MG63 with PrestoBlue (<span class="html-italic">diff</span> = −20.18, <span class="html-italic">F</span> = 60.94, <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.0005).</p>
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