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19 pages, 3766 KiB  
Article
Phytotoxic Activity Analysis of 2-Methoxyphenol and 2,6-Di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol Present in Cistus ladanifer L. Essential Oil
by Diego Orellana Dávila, David F. Frazão, Amélia M. Silva and Teresa Sosa Díaz
Plants 2025, 14(1), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants14010022 (registering DOI) - 25 Dec 2024
Abstract
The evaluation of the wide variety of allelochemicals present in allelopathic plants allows the detection of safer bioherbicides with new mechanisms of action. This study tested two phenolic compounds of Cistus ladanifer essential oil (2-Methoxyphenol and 2,6-Di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol), which are commercially available. [...] Read more.
The evaluation of the wide variety of allelochemicals present in allelopathic plants allows the detection of safer bioherbicides with new mechanisms of action. This study tested two phenolic compounds of Cistus ladanifer essential oil (2-Methoxyphenol and 2,6-Di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol), which are commercially available. At 0.01 mM, these compounds, both separately and in combination (1/1), inhibited up to over 50% of germination, cotyledon emergence and seedling growth of Lactuca sativa for the tests conducted on paper. Against Allium cepa, cotyledon emergence and seedling growth were inhibited at 0.5 mM. When the tests were carried out in the soil, the mixture of the two study compounds significantly inhibited the germination of L. sativa and A. cepa when applied at 0.5 and 1 mM, respectively, and seedling growth inhibition was greater for the latter in the paper tests. The greatest inhibitions were observed, with the highest concentrations analysed. Although there was no statistically significant difference among treatments, 2-Methoxyphenol seemed to affect germination and cotyledon emergence to a greater extent, whereas 2,6-Di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol had a greater impact on seedling size. The effect of the mixture was greater than that of both compounds separately. Full article
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Chemical structure of 2-Methoxyphenol (<b>A</b>), 2,6-Di-<span class="html-italic">tert</span>-butyl-4-methylphenol (<b>B</b>). Source: <a href="https://echa.europa.eu/" target="_blank">https://echa.europa.eu/</a> (accessed on 28 October 2024).</p>
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<p>The effect of different concentrations of 2-Methoxyphenol and 2,6-Di-<span class="html-italic">tert</span>-butyl-4-methylphenol and the mixture of the two compounds on the total germination (%Gt) and germination rate (%GR) of <span class="html-italic">Lactuca sativa</span>, expressed as a percentage relative to the control. Four replicates of each treatment were performed (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 4 × 50 = 200 seeds in total for each solution). * Significantly different from the controls; 1, 2 different numbers indicate significant differences between treatments of the same index and for each concentration. a, b, c: different letters indicate significant differences between concentrations of the same index and for each treatment. <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 (Mann–Whitney U test).</p>
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<p>The effect of different concentrations of 2-Methoxyphenol and 2,6-Di-<span class="html-italic">tert</span>-butyl-4-methylphenol and the mixture of the two compounds on the total cotyledon emergence (%Ct) and cotyledon emergence rate (%CR) of <span class="html-italic">Lactuca sativa</span>, expressed as a percentage relative to the control. Four replicates of each treatment were performed (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 4 × 50 = 200 seeds in total for each solution). * Significantly different from the controls; 1, 2, 3: different numbers indicate significant differences between treatments of the same index and for each concentration. a, b, c: different letters indicate significant differences between concentrations of the same index and for each treatment. <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 (Mann–Whitney U test).</p>
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<p>Effect of different concentrations of 2-Methoxyphenol and 2,6-Di-<span class="html-italic">tert</span>-butyl-4-methylphenol and the mixture of the two compounds on the radicle and hypocotyl length of <span class="html-italic">Lactuca sativa</span>, expressed as a percentage relative to the control. Four replicates of each treatment were performed (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 4 × 50 = 200 seeds in total for each solution). * Significantly different from the controls. 1, 2, 3: different numbers indicate significant differences between treatments of the same index and for each concentration. a, b, c: different letters indicate significant differences between concentrations of the same index and for each treatment. <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 (Mann–Whitney U test).</p>
Full article ">Figure 5
<p>The effect of different concentrations of 2-Methoxyphenol and 2,6-Di-<span class="html-italic">tert</span>-butyl-4-methylphenol and the mixture of the two compounds on the total germination (%Gt) and germination rate (%GR) of <span class="html-italic">Allium cepa</span>, expressed as a percentage relative to the control. Four replicates of each treatment were performed (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 4 × 50 = 200 seeds in total for each solution). * Significantly different from the controls; 1, 2 different numbers indicate significant differences between treatments of the same index and for each concentration. a, b: different letters indicate significant differences between concentrations of the same index and for each treatment. <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 (Mann–Whitney U test).</p>
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<p>Effect of different concentrations of 2-Methoxyphenol and 2,6-Di-<span class="html-italic">tert</span>-butyl-4-methylphenol and the mixture of the two compounds on the total cotyledon emergence (%Ct) and cotyledon emergence rate (%CR) of <span class="html-italic">Allium cepa</span>, expressed as a percentage relative to the control. Four replicates of each treatment were performed (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 4 × 50 = 200 seeds in total for each solution). * Significantly different from the controls. 1, 2, 3: different numbers indicate significant differences between treatments of the same index and for each concentration. a, b: different letters indicate significant differences between concentrations of the same index and for each treatment. <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 (Mann–Whitney U test).</p>
Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Effect of different concentrations of 2-Methoxyphenol and 2,6-Di-<span class="html-italic">tert</span>-butyl-4-methylphenol and the mixture of the two compounds on the radicle and hypocotyl length of <span class="html-italic">Allium cepa</span>, expressed as a percentage relative to the control. Four replicates of each treatment were performed (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 4 × 50 = 200 seeds in total for each solution). * Significantly different from the controls. 1, 2, 3: different numbers indicate significant differences between treatments of the same index and for each concentration. a, b, c: different letters indicate significant differences between concentrations of the same index and for each treatment. <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 (Mann–Whitney U test).</p>
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18 pages, 7906 KiB  
Review
Invasive Characteristics of Robinia pseudoacacia and Its Impacts on Species Diversity
by Hisashi Kato-Noguchi and Midori Kato
Diversity 2024, 16(12), 773; https://doi.org/10.3390/d16120773 - 19 Dec 2024
Viewed by 348
Abstract
Robinia pseudoacacia is native to North America and has been introduced into many other countries in Europe, South and South East Asia, South America, Africa, and Oceania. The species has been planted intensively in a large area of these countries because of its [...] Read more.
Robinia pseudoacacia is native to North America and has been introduced into many other countries in Europe, South and South East Asia, South America, Africa, and Oceania. The species has been planted intensively in a large area of these countries because of its ornamental and economic values. However, R. pseudoacacia often infests unintended places, including protected areas, and causes significant ecological impacts. The species is now listed as one of the harmful invasive plant species. The characteristics of its life-history, such as the high growth and reproduction rate and adaptive ability to various environmental conditions, may contribute to the invasiveness of the species. The defense ability against natural enemies such as pathogenic fungi and herbivores and its allelopathic potential against the competitive plant species may also contribute to its invasiveness. The R. pseudoacacia infestation alters the ecological functions of the plant community, including the soil microbe community, and reduces the abundance and diversity of the native plant species, including vertebrates and invertebrates in the introduced ranges. R. pseudoacacia is a shade intolerant and early successional tree species and is replaced by larger and more shade tolerant tree species in the native ranges, while plant succession seems not to occur always in the introduced ranges across the different ages of R. pseudoacacia stands. Several other review articles have summarized the afforestation, utilization, biology, and management of the species, but this is the first review focusing on the invasive mechanism of R. pseudoacacia and its impacts on species diversity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Diversity Hotspots in the 2020s)
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Graphical abstract

Graphical abstract
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<p><span class="html-italic">Robinia pseudoacacia</span>. Leaves, infestation and mature tree.</p>
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<p><span class="html-italic">Robinia pseudoacacia</span>. Fruiting stage and mature pods.</p>
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<p>Toxic substance of <span class="html-italic">R. pseudoacacia</span>, robinin.</p>
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<p>Allelochemicals of <span class="html-italic">R. pseudoacacia.</span> 1: gentisic acid, 2: vanillic acid, 3: syringic acid, 4: gallic acid, 5: hydroxybenzoic acid, 6: caffeic acid, 7: coumaric acid, 8: ferulic acid, 9: robinetin, 10: myricetin, 11: quercetin, 12: catechin.</p>
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<p>Invasive characteristics and impacts of <span class="html-italic">Robinia pseudoacacia</span>.</p>
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16 pages, 1526 KiB  
Article
Impact of Alternative Substrates on Plant Growth and Root Exudates in Plant Interactions: A Study on Secale cereale L. and Amaranthus retroflexus L.
by Elise De Snyders, Marie-Laure Fauconnier, Pauline Canelle, Judith Wirth and Aurélie Gfeller
Agronomy 2024, 14(12), 3000; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14123000 - 17 Dec 2024
Viewed by 307
Abstract
This study investigates the effects of substrate composition on root architecture, plant growth, and allelopathic secondary metabolites, specifically benzoxazinoids (BXs), in the rhizospheres of rye (Secale cereale L.) and redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus L.). Given the complexities of root exudate analysis, [...] Read more.
This study investigates the effects of substrate composition on root architecture, plant growth, and allelopathic secondary metabolites, specifically benzoxazinoids (BXs), in the rhizospheres of rye (Secale cereale L.) and redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus L.). Given the complexities of root exudate analysis, including the influence of substrate on root morphology and exudation, the experiment compared plant growth and BX release in two substrates: glass microbeads and a mixture of clay beads and attapulgite. Rye, pigweed, and co-cultures of the two were grown under controlled conditions, with root and shoot parameters measured to assess substrate suitability. Additionally, UPLC-QTOF-MS was used to analyze BXs in rye and rye–pigweed co-cultures. The results demonstrated that the clay bead and attapulgite mixture provided better growth conditions and was effective for BX extraction, making it a suitable substrate for studying allelopathy in controlled environments. The findings highlight the critical role of substrate composition in both plant development and the study of root exudates, with implications for better understanding of crop–weed interactions and allelopathy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Allelochemicals in Agriculture)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Pictures of pigweed (P) and rye (R) shoots, alone and in co-culture (R + P), in two different substrates: microbeads of glass on the left (A) and clay beads and attapulgite mixture on the right (B) at day 10 after sowing.</p>
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<p>Images of scans of rye and pigweed roots in two different substrates obtained using WinRHIZO™ Basic 2021 software: microbeads of glass (<b>A</b>) and clay beads and attapulgite mixture (<b>B</b>) at day 10 after sowing.</p>
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<p>Comparison of two substrates, microbeads of glass (substrate A) and a mixture of clay and attapulgite (substrate B), for rye and pigweed cultivated alone (R or P) and in co-culture (R + P) by measuring different root parameters: root length (<b>A</b>), root surface area (<b>B</b>), root average diameter (<b>C</b>), root volume (<b>D</b>), number of tips (<b>E</b>), root length density (<b>F</b>), root surface area density (<b>G</b>), and root branching density (<b>H</b>). Graphs comparing two substrates by measuring dry root biomass (<b>I</b>), dry shoot biomass (<b>J</b>), root tissue density (<b>K</b>), and specific root length (<b>L</b>) for rye alone (R) and in co-culture (R + P). Asterisks indicate significant differences between two groups: * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05, ** <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01, *** <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001.</p>
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<p>Comparison of two growth modalities, alone and in co-culture, for pigweed and rye cultivated in microbeads of glass (PA or RA) and a mix of clay beads and attapulgite (PB or RB) by measuring different root parameters: root length (<b>A</b>), root surface area (<b>B</b>), root average diameter (<b>C</b>), root volume (<b>D</b>), number of tips (<b>E</b>), root length density (<b>F</b>), root surface area density (<b>G</b>), and root branching density (<b>H</b>). Graphs comparing two modalities, alone and co-culture, by measuring dry root biomass (<b>I</b>), dry shoot biomass (<b>J</b>), root tissue density (<b>K</b>), and specific root length (<b>L</b>) for rye in microbeads of glass (RA) or in the clay bead and attapulgite substrate (RB). Asterisks indicate significant differences between two groups: * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05, ** <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01, *** <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001.</p>
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<p>Comparison of two substrates, microbeads of glass (<b>A</b>) and mix of clay beads and attapulgite (<b>B</b>), for rye cultivated alone and rye in co-culture by measuring different BX concentrations (μg·mL<sup>−1</sup>). Values are means ± SEMs for each condition. Asterisks indicate significant differences (<span class="html-italic">p</span>-values) between two groups: * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05, ** <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01.</p>
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12 pages, 1147 KiB  
Article
Effects of Aqueous Extracts of Lantana camara L. on Germination of Setaria viridis (L.) P.Beauv. Seeds with Different Degrees of Dormancy
by Marcelly Eduarda da Cunha Lázaro-dos-Santos, Nadine Tonelli Cavalari, Everson dos Santos Ribeiro, Henrique Henning Boyd da Cunha, Livia Marques Casanova, Fernanda Reinert, Bianca Ortiz-Silva and Luana Beatriz dos Santos Nascimento
Seeds 2024, 3(4), 677-688; https://doi.org/10.3390/seeds3040044 - 16 Dec 2024
Viewed by 285
Abstract
Setaria viridis (green foxtail) is an invasive weed species in various agricultural systems, prompting the search for effective compounds to control its germination. The species has primary and secondary dormancy depending on the time elapsed since post-harvesting, making management strategies more difficult. Several [...] Read more.
Setaria viridis (green foxtail) is an invasive weed species in various agricultural systems, prompting the search for effective compounds to control its germination. The species has primary and secondary dormancy depending on the time elapsed since post-harvesting, making management strategies more difficult. Several weed plants, such as Lantana camara L., can be a source of allelochemicals with herbicidal effects, being a potential candidate for the control of S. viridis. We investigated the effects of L. camara extracts on the germination and initial growth of S. viridis seeds with different degrees of dormancy and revealed a dose-dependent bioherbicide effect. Aqueous extracts of L. camara were analyzed by HPLC-DAD and applied (0.1 to 5.0 mg/mL) to 12- and 110-day post-harvest S. viridis seeds. Seeds were evaluated daily and germination percentage (GP), speed germination index (SGI), and radicle length (RL) were calculated. Phenolic acids and flavonoids were major components of the extract. Lower concentrations (0.1 and 0.5 mg/mL) stimulated and accelerated the germination of S. viridis, breaking its dormancy. Both 1.0 and 5.0 mg/mL concentrations hindered germination, especially in 12 dph seeds. The 1.0 mg/mL concentration resulted in longer roots, whereas 5.0 mg/mL inhibited root development. Lantana camara extracts potentially stimulate germination and radicle growth of S. viridis at low concentrations while inhibiting these parameters at higher doses. These results may open new possibilities for using L. camara in weed-control strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Seed Germination Ecophysiology of Invasive Species)
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Figure 1
<p>Effects of <span class="html-italic">L. camara</span> aqueous extracts on the germination rate of <span class="html-italic">S. viridis</span> seeds. (<b>a</b>) 12 dph seeds; (<b>b</b>) 110 dph seeds. Values are represented as means and the bars represent the standard deviation. Different letters indicate values that differ significantly at <span class="html-italic">p &lt;</span> 0.05, according to One-way ANOVA, followed by the Holm-Sidak test.</p>
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<p>Effects of <span class="html-italic">L. camara</span> aqueous extracts on germination speed index—GSI: (<b>a</b>) 12 dph seeds; (<b>b</b>) 110 dph seeds. Different letters indicate values that differ significantly at <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05, according to One-way ANOVA, followed by the Holm–Sidak test.</p>
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<p>Effects of <span class="html-italic">L. camara</span> aqueous extract on root length. (<b>a</b>) 12 dph seeds; (<b>b</b>) 110 dph seeds. Different letters indicate values that differ significantly at <span class="html-italic">p</span> ≤ 0.05, according to One-way ANOVA, followed by the Holm–Sidak test.</p>
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21 pages, 2189 KiB  
Article
In Vitro and In Silico Biological Activities Investigation of Ethyl Acetate Extract of Rubus ulmifolius Schott Leaves Collected in Algeria
by Amina Bramki, Djamila Benouchenne, Maria Michela Salvatore, Ouided Benslama, Anna Andolfi, Noureddine Rahim, Mohamed Moussaoui, Sourore Ramoul, Sirine Nessah, Ghozlane Barboucha, Chawki Bensouici, Alessio Cimmino, Jesùs Garcìa Zorrilla and Marco Masi
Plants 2024, 13(23), 3425; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13233425 - 6 Dec 2024
Viewed by 486
Abstract
This investigation aimed to assess the in vitro and in silico biological properties of the ethyl acetate (EtOAc) extract obtained from leaves of Rubus ulmifolius Schott collected in Algeria. The phytochemical screening data disclosed that flavonoids, tannins, coumarins, saponins, and anthocyanins were abundant. [...] Read more.
This investigation aimed to assess the in vitro and in silico biological properties of the ethyl acetate (EtOAc) extract obtained from leaves of Rubus ulmifolius Schott collected in Algeria. The phytochemical screening data disclosed that flavonoids, tannins, coumarins, saponins, and anthocyanins were abundant. High levels of total phenolics, total flavonoids and flavonols (523.25 ± 3.53 µg GAE/mg, 20.41 ± 1.80, and 9.62 ± 0.51 µg QE/mg respectively) were detected. Furthermore, GC-MS analysis was performed to identify low molecular weight compounds. d-(-)-Fructofuranose, gallic acid, caffeic acid, and catechin were detected as main metabolites of the EtOAc extract. The outcomes revealed that the extract exerted a potent antioxidant apt, and ensured significant bacterial growth inhibitory capacity, where the inhibition zone diameters ranged from 20.0 ± 0.5 to 24.5 ± 0.3 mm. These outcomes were confirmed through molecular docking against key bacterial enzymes that revealed significant interactions and binding affinities. d-(-)-Fructofuranose was identified as the most polar and flexible compound. Gallic acid and caffeic acid demonstrated higher unsaturation. Caffeic acid was well absorbed in the blood–brain barrier (BBB) and human intestine. Catechin was well absorbed in CaCO3, and can act as an inhibitor of CYP1A2. These results highlight how crucial it is to keep looking into natural substances in the quest for more potent and targeted pathology therapies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Phytochemistry)
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Figure 1
<p>Chemical structures of compounds identified in the crude EtOAc extract by GC-MS.</p>
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<p>2D and 3D visualizations of the best-docked compound interaction within the active site for each studied enzyme.</p>
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<p>2D and 3D visualizations of the best-docked compound interaction within the active site for each studied enzyme.</p>
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16 pages, 8117 KiB  
Review
Invasive Characteristics and Impacts of Ambrosia trifida
by Hisashi Kato-Noguchi and Midori Kato
Agronomy 2024, 14(12), 2868; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14122868 - 1 Dec 2024
Viewed by 562
Abstract
Ambrosia trifida L. is native to North America, has been introduced into many countries in Europe and East Asia, and is also expanding its habitat in its native ranges. Ambrosia trifida grows in sunny and humid environments, such as grasslands, riverbanks, floodplains, abandoned [...] Read more.
Ambrosia trifida L. is native to North America, has been introduced into many countries in Europe and East Asia, and is also expanding its habitat in its native ranges. Ambrosia trifida grows in sunny and humid environments, such as grasslands, riverbanks, floodplains, abandoned places, and agricultural fields, as an invasive plant species. Ambrosia trifida has a strong adaptive ability to adverse conditions and shows great variation in seed germination phenology and plant morphology in response to environmental conditions. Effective natural enemies have not been found in its native or introduced ranges. The species is allelopathic and contains several allelochemicals. These characteristics may contribute to the competitive ability and invasiveness of this species. Ambrosia trifida significantly reduces species diversity and plant abundance in its infested plant communities. The species also causes significant yield loss in summer crop production, such as in maize, soybean, sunflower, and cotton production. Ambrosia trifida is capable of rapid evolution against herbicide pressure. Populations of Ambrosia trifida resistant to glyphosate, ALS-inhibiting herbicides, and PPO-inhibiting herbicides, as well as cross-resistant populations, have already appeared. An integrated weed management protocol with a more diverse combination of herbicide sites of action and other practices, such as tillage, the use of different crop species, crop rotation, smart decision tools, and innovative equipment, would be essential to mitigate herbicide-dependent weed control practices and may be one sustainable system for Ambrosia trifida management. Full article
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Figure 1
<p><span class="html-italic">Ambrosia trifida</span>. Photos were provided by the Japan Association for Advancement of Phyto-Regulators (JAPR).</p>
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<p>Allelochemicals of <span class="html-italic">Ambrosia trifida</span>. <b>1</b>: α-pinene, <b>2</b>: β-pinene, <b>3</b>: camphene, <b>4</b>: cineole, <b>5</b>: 1α-angeloyloxy-carotol; <b>6</b>: 1α-(2-methylbutyroyloxy)-carotol; <b>7</b>: (1<span class="html-italic">E</span>,4<span class="html-italic">E</span>)-germacrdiene-6β,15-diol; <b>8</b>: (<span class="html-italic">E</span>)-4β,5α-epoxy-7α<span class="html-italic">H</span>-germacr-1(1<span class="html-italic">O</span>)-ene-2β,6β-diol; <b>9</b>: (2<span class="html-italic">R</span>)-δ-cadin-4-ene-2,10-diol; <b>10</b>: chlorogenic acid; <b>11</b>: caffeic acid; <b>12</b>: <span class="html-italic">p</span>-coumaric acid; <b>13</b>: vanillin; <b>14</b>: bornyl acetate; <b>15</b>: borneol; <b>16</b>: caryophyllene oxide; <b>17</b>: germacrene D; <b>18</b>: <span class="html-italic">β</span>-caryophyllene; <b>19</b>: limonene.</p>
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<p>Invasive characteristics and impacts of <span class="html-italic">Ambrosia trifida</span>.</p>
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16 pages, 6463 KiB  
Article
Faba Bean Extracts Allelopathically Inhibited Seed Germination and Promoted Seedling Growth of Maize
by Bo Li, Enqiang Zhou, Yao Zhou, Xuejun Wang and Kaihua Wang
Agronomy 2024, 14(12), 2857; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14122857 - 29 Nov 2024
Viewed by 425
Abstract
Allelopathic interactions between crops in an intercropping system can directly affect crop yields. Faba beans may release allelochemicals to the cropping system. However, the allelopathic effects in the faba bean–maize relay intercropping system are still unclear. Maize seeds and seedlings were treated with [...] Read more.
Allelopathic interactions between crops in an intercropping system can directly affect crop yields. Faba beans may release allelochemicals to the cropping system. However, the allelopathic effects in the faba bean–maize relay intercropping system are still unclear. Maize seeds and seedlings were treated with a 50 mL of 100 g L−1 faba bean leaf extract (L1), 150 g L−1 faba bean leaf extract (L2), 100 g L−1 faba bean stem extract (S1), or 150 g L−1 faba bean stem extract (S2) and sterile water (CK) to study the allelopathic effects of faba bean extracts on maize seed germination and seedling growth. The α-amylase activities, antioxidant enzyme activities, phytohormones and allelochemical content in maize seeds were determined to evaluate the allelopathic effects of faba bean extracts on maize seed germination. The agronomic traits, photosynthetic parameters and nutrient absorption characteristics of maize seedlings were determined to explore the allelopathic effects of faba bean extracts on maize seedling growth. High-concentration (150 g L−1) faba bean stem extracts released allelochemicals, such as 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, hydrocinnamic acid, trans-cinnamic acid, and benzoic acid. These allelochemicals entered the interior of maize seeds and increased the abscisic acid, salicylic acid and indole-3-acetic acid content in maize seeds but decreased the aminocyclopropane carboxylic acid in maize seeds. High-concentration (150 g L−1) faba bean stem extracts increased the superoxide dismutase and peroxidase activity and decreased the α-amylase activity in maize seeds at germination (36 h). Faba bean extracts released nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus and increased nitrogen content, phosphorus content, potassium content and photosynthesis of maize seedling. In summary, faba bean extracts released allelochemicals that inhibited the germination of maize seeds but released nutrients and promoted the growth and development of maize seedlings. The research results provide a basis for improving the Faba bean–maize relay strip intercropping. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Biosystem and Biological Engineering)
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<p>Maize seedlings in control (<b>CK</b>) and (<b>L2)</b> treatment (150 g L<sup>−1</sup> faba bean leaf extract) at 21 d.</p>
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<p>The phytohormones content in maize seeds treated by faba bean extracts. (<b>A</b>) Abscisic acid, (<b>B</b>) aminocyclopropane carboxylic acid, (<b>C</b>) brassinolide, (<b>D</b>) gibberellin A1, (<b>E</b>) indole-3-acetic acid, (<b>F</b>) methyl jasmonate, (<b>G</b>) N6-(delta2-Isopentenyl) adenine, (<b>H</b>) N6-(delta2-Isopentenyl) adenosine, (<b>I</b>) salicylic acid. S2 maize seeds treated by 150 g L<sup>−1</sup> of faba bean stem extracts; CK, maize seeds treated by sterile water. Lowercase letters above the bar indicate significant differences (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05).</p>
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<p>The germination rate, α-amylase activity, SOD, CAT, POD activity and MDA content in maize seeds treated by faba bean extracts. (<b>A</b>) Germination rate of maize seeds treated by faba bean extracts, (<b>B</b>) SOD activity, (<b>C</b>) CAT activity, (<b>D</b>) α-amylase, (<b>E</b>) CAT activity, (<b>F</b>) MDA content. L1, maize seeds treated by 100 g L<sup>−1</sup> faba bean leaf extracts; L2, maize seeds treated by 150 g L<sup>−1</sup> faba bean leaf extracts; S1, maize seeds treated by 100 g L<sup>−1</sup> faba bean stem extracts; S2 maize seeds treated by 150 g L<sup>−1</sup> faba bean stem extracts; CK, maize seeds treated by sterile water. Lowercase letters above the bar indicate significant differences (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05).</p>
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<p>Maize seed structure and amylolytic degradation in maize endosperm cells. (<b>A</b>,<b>C</b>,<b>E</b>) CK, (<b>B</b>,<b>D</b>,<b>F</b>) maize seeds treated by faba bean stem extracts (S2); AL, aleurone layer; Em, embryo; SG, starch granules; SE, starch endosperm; (<b>C</b>,<b>D</b>) structure in the central position of the endosperm; (<b>E</b>,<b>F</b>) structure in the surface powder layer.</p>
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<p>Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium content in maize seedling and faba bean extracts. (<b>A</b>) Nitrogen content in maize seedling, (<b>B</b>) phosphorus content in maize seedling, (<b>C</b>) potassium content in maize seedling. (<b>D</b>) Nitrogen content in faba bean extracts, (<b>E</b>) pohosphorus content in faba bean extracts, (<b>F</b>) potassium content in faba bean extracts. L1, maize seedlings treated by 100 g L<sup>−1</sup> faba bean leaf extracts; L2, maize seedlings treated by 150 g L<sup>−1</sup> faba bean leaf extracts; S1, maize seedlings treated by 100 g L<sup>−1</sup> faba bean stem extracts; S2 maize seedlings treated by 150 g L<sup>−1</sup> faba bean stem extracts; CK, maize seeds treated by sterile water. Lowercase letters above the bar indicate significant differences (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05).</p>
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<p>Venn diagrams, heat map of genes and GO enrichment analysis of differentially expressed genes. (<b>A</b>) Venn diagrams of CK and L2 at germination 36 h, (<b>B</b>) Venn diagrams of CK and L2 at growth 21 d. Numbers in a single-shaded region indicate sample-specific genes, while those in a double-shaded region show the overlap genes. (<b>C</b>) Heat map of genes related to antioxidant enzymes, gibberellin in CK and S2, (<b>D</b>) heat map of genes photosynthesis and nutrient absorption in CK and L2.</p>
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<p>Proposed model of faba bean extracts inhibited germination of maize seeds.</p>
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16 pages, 1067 KiB  
Article
Alcoholic Fermentation Activators: Bee Pollen Extracts as a New Alternative
by Juan Manuel Pérez-González, José Manuel Igartuburu, Víctor Palacios, Pau Sancho-Galán, Ana Jiménez-Cantizano and Antonio Amores-Arrocha
Agronomy 2024, 14(12), 2802; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14122802 - 25 Nov 2024
Viewed by 474
Abstract
Searching for natural alternatives to synthetic fermentation activators has led to the study of bee pollen as a natural alcoholic fermentation activator. This study evaluated the potential of different bee pollen extracts (0.25 g/L) as activators in a Palomino Fino grape must. By [...] Read more.
Searching for natural alternatives to synthetic fermentation activators has led to the study of bee pollen as a natural alcoholic fermentation activator. This study evaluated the potential of different bee pollen extracts (0.25 g/L) as activators in a Palomino Fino grape must. By analysing the composition of each extract, it was possible to identify the specific bee pollen fractions with the highest efficacy for activating alcoholic fermentation. Four extracts were obtained through sequential extraction using various organic solvents of increasing polarity (hexane, acetone, ethanol, and water), and their compositions were characterised. The effect of each extract was evaluated by monitoring the viable yeast populations and fermentation kinetics throughout the alcoholic fermentation process, along with the physicochemical and colour characterisation of the white wines obtained. The bee pollen fraction extracted with hexane, which was rich in long-chain fatty acids, significantly increased the maximum yeast populations and improved the fermentation kinetics. However, the extracts rich in polyphenolic compounds exhibited slower fermentation rates. Based on the obtained results, the lipid fraction of bee pollen extracted with hexane may be responsible for its ability to activate alcoholic fermentation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Extraction and Analysis of Bioactive Compounds in Crops—2nd Edition)
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<p>Development of viable <span class="html-italic">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</span> during the process of alcoholic fermentation of the Palomino Fino grape must using bee pollen extracts, bee pollen, or a control.</p>
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<p>Relative density evolution during alcoholic fermentation of Palomino Fino grape must using doses of bee pollen and extracts.</p>
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<p>Evolution of YAN in Palomino Fino grape must using doses of bee pollen extracts, bee pollen, and control during alcoholic fermentation.</p>
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<p>Olfactory and taste evaluation of Palomino Fino wines made with bee pollen or bee pollen extracts and control. Stars (*) indicate significant differences between trials for the respective attributes (ANOVA, <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05), as determined by a two-way ANOVA and applying a Bonferroni multiple range (BSD) test.</p>
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3 pages, 181 KiB  
Editorial
Allelopathy: Mechanisms and Applications in Regenerative Agriculture
by Margot Schulz and Vincenzo Tabaglio
Plants 2024, 13(23), 3301; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13233301 - 25 Nov 2024
Viewed by 634
Abstract
Allelopathy is an important mechanism in plant communication and interference, involving the release of plant/microorganism self-produced, special featured organic molecules into the environment [...] Full article
15 pages, 3728 KiB  
Article
Phytotoxic Activity of Myrciaria cuspidata O. Berg, a Dominant Myrtaceae Woodland Tree Native of Brazil
by Yve V. S. Magedans, Fábio A. Antonelo, Kelly C. S. Rodrigues-Honda, Paula O. S. Ribeiro, Maria E. Alves-Áquila and Arthur G. Fett-Neto
Plants 2024, 13(23), 3293; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13233293 - 23 Nov 2024
Viewed by 469
Abstract
Limited phytodiversity and regeneration rates occur in some of the southern Brazilian formations known as the Myrtacean Woodlands. Data on phytotoxicity, chemical composition, and allelopathic potential of Myrciaria cuspidata O. Berg, a dominant species in such woodlands, is missing. In this study, both [...] Read more.
Limited phytodiversity and regeneration rates occur in some of the southern Brazilian formations known as the Myrtacean Woodlands. Data on phytotoxicity, chemical composition, and allelopathic potential of Myrciaria cuspidata O. Berg, a dominant species in such woodlands, is missing. In this study, both the chemical composition and phytotoxic activity of an aqueous extract (AE) from M. cuspidata leaves were investigated. Target plants were the model species Lactuca sativa L. and the weed Bidens pilosa L. Germination rates, seedling growth, and phenotypic responses of target species were assessed following AE application to determine the inhibitory capacity of M. cuspidata leaf extract. Germination of L. sativa was reduced and delayed in the presence of AE. Strong inhibition of germination was recorded in B. pilosa achenes under the same treatment. Pre-germinated seedlings of L. sativa were essentially not affected by AE, whereas those of the weed showed some negative developmental responses. Overall, inhibitory responses were consistent both in vitro and in soil substrate. Detrimental effects were most apparent in roots and included tip darkening and growth anomalies often preceded by loss of mitochondrial viability. AE proved rich in phytotoxic phenolic compounds including quercetin, gallic and tannic acid. To sum up, AE shows potential as an environmentally friendly pre-emergence bioherbicide of low residual effect and minor environmental impact. Experimental data in laboratory conditions were consistent with potential allelopathic activity of this tree, as inferred from field observations of dominance in the Myrtaceae Woodlands. Full article
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<p>General view of a portion of Myrtacean Woodland, showing the scarce understory vegetation (<b>A</b>). Aspect of fruiting branch of <span class="html-italic">M. cuspidata</span> (<b>B</b>). Photo credit: Kelly Cristine Rodrigues-Honda.</p>
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<p>Chromatogram of <span class="html-italic">Myrcyaria cuspidata</span> leaf aqueous extract at 0.04 g/mL (dark blue) and authentic tannic acid at 100 µg/mL (light blue). Detection set at 280 nm.</p>
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<p>Germination of <span class="html-italic">L. sativa</span> (<b>A</b>,<b>C</b>) and <span class="html-italic">B. pilosa</span> (<b>B</b>,<b>D</b>) achenes in Petri dishes containing water (control) or <span class="html-italic">M. cuspidata</span> leaf aqueous extract at 4% (<span class="html-italic">w</span>/<span class="html-italic">v</span>). Germination time course was recorded at 24 h intervals. Darkening of germinated <span class="html-italic">L. sativa</span> seedlings roots whose achenes were in the presence of leaf extract is visible (red circle).</p>
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<p>Growth of <span class="html-italic">B. pilosa</span> and <span class="html-italic">L. sativa</span> in Petri dishes. Pre-germinated seedlings were grown in <span class="html-italic">M. cuspidata</span> leaf aqueous extract at 4% (<span class="html-italic">w</span>/<span class="html-italic">v</span>) or water (control). Data were obtained at the end of the experiments (6 days for <span class="html-italic">L. sativa</span> and 12 days for <span class="html-italic">B. pilosa</span>). Radicle and hypocotyl elongation (<b>A</b>,<b>E</b>), comparisons valid within each organ), fresh weight (<b>B</b>,<b>F</b>), dry weight (<b>C</b>,<b>G</b>), total seedling length (<b>D</b>,<b>H</b>). Control and treated groups were compared using a <span class="html-italic">t</span>-test (<span class="html-italic">p</span> ≤ 0.05). Bars not sharing a letter are significantly different.</p>
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<p>Germination and growth of <span class="html-italic">L. sativa</span> on the solid substrate. <span class="html-italic">M. cuspidata</span> leaf aqueous extract 4% (<span class="html-italic">w</span>/<span class="html-italic">v</span>) or water (control) sprayed twice—at day 0 and 48 h. (<b>A</b>)—Germination time course recorded at 24 h intervals; (<b>B</b>)—Radicle and hypocotyl elongation (comparisons valid within each organ); (<b>C</b>)—Germination percentage in soil; (<b>D</b>)—total length of plants; (<b>E</b>)—fresh weight; (<b>F</b>)—dry weight. Control and treated groups were compared using <span class="html-italic">t</span>-test (<span class="html-italic">p</span> ≤ 0.05). Bars not sharing a letter are significantly different.</p>
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<p>Germination and growth of <span class="html-italic">B. pilosa</span> on solid substrate. <span class="html-italic">M. cuspidata</span> leaf aqueous extract 4% (<span class="html-italic">w</span>/<span class="html-italic">v</span>) or water (control) were sprayed in plants twice—at day 0 and 48 h. (<b>A</b>)—Germination time course recorded at 24 h intervals; (<b>B</b>)—Radicle and hypocotyl elongation (comparisons valid within each organ); (<b>C</b>)—Germination percentage in soil; (<b>D</b>)—Fresh weight and (<b>E</b>)—Dry weight; (<b>F</b>)—Total length of plants. Control and treated groups were compared using a <span class="html-italic">t</span>-test (<span class="html-italic">p</span> ≤ 0.05). Bars not sharing a letter are significantly different.</p>
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12 pages, 1757 KiB  
Article
The Specific Impacts of Allelopathy and Resource Competition from Artemisia frigida on the Growth of Three Plant Species in Northern China
by Qing Wang, Mengqiao Kong, Junwen Wang, Bin Gao and Xiaoyan Ping
Plants 2024, 13(23), 3286; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13233286 - 22 Nov 2024
Viewed by 538
Abstract
Plant interference is a key factor influencing plant coexistence and species composition. The two primary forms of plant interference—allelopathy and resource competition—are often difficult to separate. This study conducted an outdoor pot experiment to quantify the distinct contributions of resource competition and allelopathy [...] Read more.
Plant interference is a key factor influencing plant coexistence and species composition. The two primary forms of plant interference—allelopathy and resource competition—are often difficult to separate. This study conducted an outdoor pot experiment to quantify the distinct contributions of resource competition and allelopathy of Artemisia frigida on seedling growth of three species: Leymus chinensis, Cleistogenes squarrosa, and Potentilla acaulis. The index of relative neighbor effect (RNE) was used to quantify the overall effect of plant interference, while the inhibition rates (IRs) of resource competition and allelopathy were utilized to determine the specific contributions of allelopathy and resource competition from A. frigida on the growth of target plant species. The interference effect of A. frigida was found to be species-specific. The allelopathic effect of A. frigida played a major role in inhibiting the belowground biomass of L. chinensis (23.97%) and C. squarrosa (58.27%), while allelopathy and resource competition from A. frigida promoted the belowground biomass (45.12%) and aboveground biomass (46.63%) of P. acaulis, respectively. The combined effect of allelopathy and resource competition from A. frigida significantly affected the aboveground biomass of C. squarrosa and P. acaulis, as well as the belowground biomass of L. chinensis and C. squarrosa. These findings contribute to a better understanding of the patterns and mechanisms of plant species composition and its relationship with grazing intensity in this grassland ecosystem. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Chemical Ecology)
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<p>Specific contribution of allelopathy and resource competition from <span class="html-italic">Artemisia frigida</span> to the growth of three target species (LC: <span class="html-italic">Leymus chinensis</span>, AF: <span class="html-italic">Artemisia frigida</span>, CS: <span class="html-italic">Cleistogenes squarrosa</span>, PA: <span class="html-italic">Potentilla acaulis</span>; RC: resource competition; AE: allelopathy; and CK: monoculture. Red font in the figure indicates a growth-inhibiting effect, while blue font indicates a growth-promoting effect. The green arrows in the figure indicate aboveground biomass, and the brown arrows indicate belowground biomass).</p>
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<p>Effects of allelopathy and resource competition of <span class="html-italic">Artemisia frigida</span> on the growth of three target plant species (All the data are shown as mean ± SE (n = 3). (<b>a</b>): Effects of allelopathy and resource competition of <span class="html-italic">Artemisia frigida</span> on the aboveground biomass of <span class="html-italic">L</span>. <span class="html-italic">chinensis</span> (<b>a1</b>), <span class="html-italic">C</span>. <span class="html-italic">squarrosa</span> (<b>a2</b>), <span class="html-italic">P</span>. <span class="html-italic">acaulis</span> (<b>a3</b>). (<b>b</b>): Effects of allelopathy and resource competition of <span class="html-italic">Artemisia frigida</span> on the belowground biomass of <span class="html-italic">L</span>. <span class="html-italic">chinensis</span> (<b>b1</b>), <span class="html-italic">C</span>. <span class="html-italic">squarrosa</span> (<b>b2</b>), <span class="html-italic">P</span>. <span class="html-italic">acaulis</span> (<b>b3</b>). CK: monoculture; AE + RC: both allelopathy and resource competition; RC: resource competition; AE: allelopathy of <span class="html-italic">A</span>. <span class="html-italic">frigida</span>; No AE or RC: neither allelopathy nor resource competition of <span class="html-italic">A</span>. <span class="html-italic">frigida</span>; and AC added: activated carbon was added to evaluate the specific impact of activated carbon on plant growth of three target plant species). Different lowercase letters show the significant differences in biomass of the same plant specie between different treatments (<span class="html-italic">P</span> &lt; 0.05).</p>
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<p>Interference of <span class="html-italic">Artemisia frigida</span> with the plant growth of three target species (We used the average <span class="html-italic">RNE</span> of aboveground and belowground biomass to represent the interference of <span class="html-italic">A</span>. <span class="html-italic">frigida</span> with three target species (red arrows). Meanwhile, the interference of three target species with <span class="html-italic">A</span>. <span class="html-italic">frigida</span> was also marked in the figure (blue arrows). The blue values signify a promotional effect, while the red values denote an inhibitory effect).</p>
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<p>Design of outdoor pot experimental to differentiate between allelopathy and resource competition of <span class="html-italic">Artemisia frigida</span> in a temperate grassland in northern China. The allelopathic effect of <span class="html-italic">A</span>. <span class="html-italic">frigida</span> was eliminated by adding activated carbon to absorb allelochemicals both in the soil and air, represented by black dots on the pots. Resource competition was mitigated by introducing a PVC partition in the center of the pot, depicted as gray-shaded pots in the figure. The four plant species used in this study included LC, <span class="html-italic">Leymus chinensis</span>; CS, <span class="html-italic">Cleistogenes squarrosa;</span> AF, <span class="html-italic">Artemisia frigida;</span> and PA, <span class="html-italic">Potentilla acaulis</span>, representing the dominant species under non-grazing, light grazing, moderate grazing, and extreme grazing intensities at the study site, respectively. The experimental conditions were categorized as follows: AE (allelopathy), RC (resource competition), No AE or RC (neither allelopathy nor resource competition), AE + RC (both allelopathy and resource competition), AC added (activated carbon was added to assess its impact on plant growth), and CK (three target species planted individually).</p>
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22 pages, 20099 KiB  
Article
Allelochemicals from Moso Bamboo: Identification and Their Effects on Neighbor Species
by Anke Wang, Kaiwen Huang, Yilin Ning and Yufang Bi
Forests 2024, 15(11), 2040; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15112040 - 19 Nov 2024
Viewed by 567
Abstract
Moso bamboo, which is essential to China’s economy, is currently facing significant threats due to declining profits. Inadequate management of moso bamboo can negatively impact the surrounding ecosystems. This study investigated allelopathy in moso bamboo forests by identifying potential allelochemicals and their effects [...] Read more.
Moso bamboo, which is essential to China’s economy, is currently facing significant threats due to declining profits. Inadequate management of moso bamboo can negatively impact the surrounding ecosystems. This study investigated allelopathy in moso bamboo forests by identifying potential allelochemicals and their effects on coexisting plants. Fresh leaves and litter from moso bamboo were collected to examine allelochemicals released through natural processes such as rainwater leaching and litter decomposition. Seven substances with potential allelopathic effects were identified using liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC–MS). Four of these substances—DBP, PHBA, citric acid, and CGA—were selected for a detailed analysis of their effects on the photosynthetic and antioxidant systems of two naturally coexisting plants, Phoebe chekiangensis and Castanopsis sclerophylla. The results indicated that the four chemicals influenced P. chekiangensis and C. sclerophylla through different patterns of interference. DBP, PHBA, and citric acid negatively impacted the transfer of electrons during photosynthesis in both plants but had a lesser effect on the antioxidant system-related indicators in P. chekiangensis. In C. sclerophylla, these four chemicals led to a significant accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and increased malondialdehyde (MDA) content and catalase (CAT) activity to varying degrees. Furthermore, the relative abundance of fungi and bacteria in the soil was also affected by the DBP treatment. The identification of allelochemicals from moso bamboo, along with the investigation of their mechanisms, provides valuable insights into competitive interactions among plant species, particularly between moso bamboo and other species, along with the expansion of moso bamboo forests. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecophysiology and Biology)
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<p>The relative content of dibutyl phthalate, citric acid, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, quinic acid, caffeic acid, sinapic acid, and chlorogenic acid in fresh leaves and litter leaves of moso bamboo in P1 and P2. The peak area can be used to estimate the relative content of different substances. Because there was a big gap in the peak area between chlorogenic acid and the other seven chemicals, the Y-axis for chlorogenic acid was separately positioned on the right side.</p>
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<p>Chlorophyll a fluorescence induction curve of <span class="html-italic">P. chekiangensis</span> and <span class="html-italic">C. sclerophylla</span> under treatment with DBP, PHBA, citric acid, and CGA. (<b>a</b>): Chl a fluorescence induction curve of <span class="html-italic">P. chekiangensis</span> under treatment with DBP and PHBA. (<b>b</b>): Chl a fluorescence induction curve of <span class="html-italic">P. chekiangensis</span> under treatment with citric acid and CGA. (<b>c</b>): Chl a fluorescence induction curve of <span class="html-italic">C. sclerophylla</span> under treatment with DBP and PHBA. (<b>d</b>): Chl a fluorescence induction curve of <span class="html-italic">C. sclerophylla</span> under treatment with citric acid and CGA.</p>
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<p>Illustrates a spider plot showcasing selected Chl a fluorescence parameter that characterizes the photosystem II (PSII) of both <span class="html-italic">P. chekiangensis</span> and <span class="html-italic">C. sclerophylla</span> under various treatments, including DBP, PHBA, citric acid, and chlorogenic acid. Each parameter is represented on its individual scale. Significance markers (*) indicate instances where significant differences from the control group (CK) were observed at a <span class="html-italic">p</span>-value of 0.05. The chl a fluorescence parameters of <span class="html-italic">P. chekiangensis</span> under DBP, PHBA, citric acid, and CGA are represented by (<b>a</b>,<b>c</b>,<b>e</b>,<b>g</b>), respectively. The chl a fluorescence parameters of <span class="html-italic">C. sclerophylla</span> under DBP, PHBA, citric acid, and CGA are represented by (<b>b</b>,<b>d</b>,<b>f</b>,<b>h</b>), respectively.</p>
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<p>Phylum of bacteria and fungi. Lowercase letters indicate instances where significant differences were observed at a <span class="html-italic">p</span>-value of 0.05.</p>
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<p>Genus of fungi. Lowercase letters indicate instances where significant differences were observed at a <span class="html-italic">p</span>-value of 0.05.</p>
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<p>Genus of bacteria. Lowercase letters indicate instances where significant differences were observed at a <span class="html-italic">p</span>-value of 0.05. Large differences in abundance are labeled by a different Y-axis. <span class="html-italic">Burkholderia</span> spp. recently reclassified into <span class="html-italic">Caballeronia</span> and <span class="html-italic">Paraburkholderia</span> labeled as Burkholderia-C-P here.</p>
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16 pages, 1635 KiB  
Article
Alleviating Continuous Cropping Obstacles in Celery Using Engineered Biochar: Insights into Chemical and Microbiological Aspects
by Chia-Chia Lin, Ya-Hui Chuang, Fo-Ting Shen, Wen-Hsin Chung, Chi-Yu Chen, Yu-Ting Liu, Yi-Cheng Hsieh, Yu-Min Tzou and Shih-Hao Jien
Agronomy 2024, 14(11), 2685; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14112685 - 14 Nov 2024
Viewed by 705
Abstract
In the pursuit of environmental sustainability and food security, biochar has emerged as a promising soil conditioner to mitigate continuous cropping obstacles (CCOs). This study explored the use of engineered biochar (WP400) with high adsorption capacity for phenolic acids in celery cultivation. Using [...] Read more.
In the pursuit of environmental sustainability and food security, biochar has emerged as a promising soil conditioner to mitigate continuous cropping obstacles (CCOs). This study explored the use of engineered biochar (WP400) with high adsorption capacity for phenolic acids in celery cultivation. Using liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF/MS) for both target and suspect analyses, along with Biolog EcoPlate™ to track the functional diversity of soil bacteria, the study examined chemical and microbiological interactions at varying WP400 application rates. WP400 enhanced celery growth, reduced disease severity, and adsorbed p-coumaric acid (COU), a potential autotoxin. Additionally, other potential allelochemicals, predominantly fatty acid-related, were identified, suggesting a broader role for fatty acids in allelopathy. WP400 also influenced soil bacterial carbon utilization and altered microbial communities. However, higher WP400 doses (0.8% w/w) may not be beneficial for celery growth and reduced bacterial metabolic potential, indicating limitations to its effectiveness. Proper application of WP400 provides a sustainable solution for alleviating continuous cropping issues, promoting both environmental sustainability and agricultural development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)
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<p>Changes in soil phenolic acid concentrations following the addition of 0% (N), 0.2% (BS2), 0.4% (BS4), or 0.8% (BS8) (<span class="html-italic">w</span>/<span class="html-italic">w</span>) WP400 biochar. * Indicates significant differences in the LSD test (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05) between treatments of the first crop. ☆: &lt;limit of quantification. HYD: 4-hydroxybenzoic acid; VAN: vanillic acid; COU: p-coumaric acid; FER: ferulic acid.</p>
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<p>Changes in average well color development (AWCD) for the (<b>a</b>) first crop and (<b>b</b>) second crop over a 24 to 120 h period following the addition of 0% (N), 0.2% (BS2), 0.4% (BS4), or 0.8% (BS8) (<span class="html-italic">w</span>/<span class="html-italic">w</span>) WP400 biochar. Means with the same letter for a given factor do not significantly differ at <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 (LSD test). The inserted figures represent the AWCD at 120 h reaction times.</p>
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<p>Utilization of different carbon source categories (C: carbohydrates; C&amp;K: carboxylic and ketonic acids; P: polymers; A: amino acids; AA: amines/amides) by soil bacteria during the (<b>a</b>) first crop and (<b>b</b>) second crop following the addition of 0% (N), 0.2% (BS2), 0.4% (BS4), or 0.8% (BS8) (<span class="html-italic">w</span>/<span class="html-italic">w</span>) WP400 biochar. * Indicates a significant difference in the LSD test (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05).</p>
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12 pages, 2158 KiB  
Article
An Algerian Soil-Living Streptomyces alboflavus Strain as Source of Antifungal Compounds for the Management of the Pea Pathogen Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. pisi
by Marco Masi, Dorsaf Nedjar, Moustafa Bani, Ivana Staiano, Maria Michela Salvatore, Karima Khenaka, Stefany Castaldi, Jesus Garcia Zorrilla, Anna Andolfi, Rachele Isticato and Alessio Cimmino
J. Fungi 2024, 10(11), 783; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof10110783 - 12 Nov 2024
Viewed by 725
Abstract
Fusarium wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. pisi (Fop) poses significant threats to pea cultivation worldwide. Controlling this disease is mainly achieved through the integration of various disease management procedures, among which biological control has proven to be a safe [...] Read more.
Fusarium wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. pisi (Fop) poses significant threats to pea cultivation worldwide. Controlling this disease is mainly achieved through the integration of various disease management procedures, among which biological control has proven to be a safe and effective approach. This study aims to extract and identify antifungal secondary metabolites from Streptomyces alboflavus KRO3 strain and assess their effectiveness in inhibiting the in vitro growth of Fop. This bacterial strain exerts in vitro antagonistic activity against Fop, achieving highly significant inhibition over one week. The ethyl acetate extract, obtained from its ISP2 agar medium culture, also exhibited strong antifungal activity, maintaining an inhibition rate of approximately 90% at concentrations up to 250 µg/plug compared to the control. Thus, the organic extract has been fractionated using chromatographic techniques and its bioguided purification allowed us to isolate the main bioactive compound. This latter was identified as metacycloprodigiosin using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS), and specific optical rotation data. Metacycloprodigiosin demonstrates dose-dependent inhibitory activity against the phytopathogen with an effective concentration of 125 µg/plug. The other secondary metabolites present in the ethyl acetate extract were also identified by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). This study highlighted the potential of S. alboflavus KRO3 strain and its antimicrobial compounds for the management of the pea pathogen Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. pisi. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Investigators in Bioactive Fungal Metabolites, 2nd Edition)
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<p>In vitro antifungal assay of the strain. (<b>A</b>) Growth inhibition of <span class="html-italic">F. oxysporum</span> f. sp. <span class="html-italic">pisi</span> by Streptomyces alboflavus KRO3; (<b>B</b>) <span class="html-italic">F. oxysporum</span> f. sp. <span class="html-italic">pisi</span> on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) as control.</p>
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<p>Antifungal assay of the organic extract. (<b>A</b>) The TOE<sub>KRO3</sub> of <span class="html-italic">Streptomyces alboflavus</span> KRO3 was tested at 1000, 500, 250, 125, and 62.5 μg/plug against <span class="html-italic">Fop</span> grown on PDA plates for 7 days at 25 °C. MeOH was used as negative control; (<b>B</b>) graphical representation of the inhibition of the fungal growth of <span class="html-italic">Fop</span> by TOE<sub>KRO3</sub>. Data are presented as means ± S.E.M. (n = 3 replication for each concentration) compared to control <span class="html-italic">Fop</span> grown only with MeOH. One-way ANOVA test was performed to compare the groups of data; values that do not share a letter are statistically different (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05).</p>
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<p>Antifungal assay of the fractions obtained from the organic extract. (<b>A</b>) The fractions of TOE<sub>KRO3</sub> (from FA to FE) were tested at a concentration of 250 μg/plug against <span class="html-italic">Fop</span> grown on PDA plates for 7 days at 25 °C. MeOH was used as negative control. (<b>B</b>) Graphical representation of the inhibition of the fractions. Data are presented as means ± S.E.M. (n = 3 replication for each concentration) compared to control <span class="html-italic">Fop</span> grown only with MeOH. One-way ANOVA test was performed to compare the groups of data; values that do not share a letter are statistically different (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05).</p>
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<p>Chemical structure of metacycloprodigiosin (<b>1</b>).</p>
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<p>Antifungal assay of metacycloprodigiosin (<b>1</b>). (<b>A</b>) The metacycloprodigiosin was tested at 250, 125, 62.5, 31.25, and 15.625 μg/plug against <span class="html-italic">Fop</span> grown on PDA plates for 7 days at 25 °C. MeOH was used as negative control; (<b>B</b>) graphical representation of the inhibition of metacycloprodigiosin. Data are presented as means ± S.E.M. (n = 3 replication for each concentration) compared to control <span class="html-italic">Fop</span> grown only with MeOH. One-way ANOVA test was performed to compare the groups of data; values that do not share a letter are statistically different (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05).</p>
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35 pages, 3766 KiB  
Review
Understanding the Influence of Secondary Metabolites in Plant Invasion Strategies: A Comprehensive Review
by Rasheed Akbar, Jianfan Sun, Yanwen Bo, Wajid Ali Khattak, Amir Abdullah Khan, Cheng Jin, Umar Zeb, Najeeb Ullah, Adeel Abbas, Wei Liu, Xiaoyan Wang, Shah Masaud Khan and Daolin Du
Plants 2024, 13(22), 3162; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13223162 - 11 Nov 2024
Viewed by 1131
Abstract
The invasion of non-native plant species presents a significant ecological challenge worldwide, impacting native ecosystems and biodiversity. These invasive plant species significantly affect the native ecosystem. The threat of invasive plant species having harmful effects on the natural ecosystem is a serious concern. [...] Read more.
The invasion of non-native plant species presents a significant ecological challenge worldwide, impacting native ecosystems and biodiversity. These invasive plant species significantly affect the native ecosystem. The threat of invasive plant species having harmful effects on the natural ecosystem is a serious concern. Invasive plant species produce secondary metabolites, which not only help in growth and development but are also essential for the spread of these plant species. This review highlights the important functions of secondary metabolites in plant invasion, particularly their effect on allelopathy, defense system, interaction with micro soil biota, and competitive advantages. Secondary metabolites produced by invasive plant species play an important role by affecting allelopathic interactions and herbivory. They sometimes change the soil chemistry to make a viable condition for their proliferation. The secondary metabolites of invasive plant species inhibit the growth of native plant species by changing the resources available to them. Therefore, it is necessary to understand this complicated interaction between secondary metabolites and plant invasion. This review mainly summarizes all the known secondary metabolites of non-native plant species, emphasizing their significance for integrated weed management and research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology and Management of Invasive Plants—2nd Edition)
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<p>Secondary metabolites in invasive weeds, for the synthesis of isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP), dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP), methylerythritol phosphate (MEP), and mevalonate (MVA) pathways responsible. Acetoacetyl-CoA, 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA), acetyl-CoA, acetoacetyl-CoA, acetyl-CoA, MVA, 5-phosphomevalonate (MVP), and 5-diphosphomevalonate (MVPP) are the intermediaries of the MVA pathway. Acetyl-CoA acetyltransferase (AACT), 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA synthase (HMGS), mevalonate kinase (MK), 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-CoA reductase (HMGR), phosphomevalonate kinase (PMK), diphosphomevalonate decarboxylase (MVD), and isopentenyl diphosphate isomerase (IDI) are the enzymes involved in the MVA pathway. Relatively to the MEP pathway, its intermediaries are D-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P), pyruvate, 1-deoxy-d-xylulose 5-phosphate (DXP), MEP, 4-(cytidine 5′-diphospho)-2-C-methyl-D-erythritol (CDP-ME), 2-phospho-4-(cytidine 5′-diphospho)-2-C-methyl-D-erythritol (CDP-MEP), 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol-2,4-cyclodiphosphate (MEcPP), and 1-hydroxy-2-methyl-2-butenyl 4-diphosphate (HMBPP). The enzymes involved in the MEP pathway are 1-deoxy-d-xylulose-5-phosphate synthase (DXS), 1-deoxy-d-xylulose-5-phosphate reductoisomerase (DXR), 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate cytidylyltransferase (MCT), 4-diphosphocyt-idyl-2-C-methyl-D-erythritol kinase (CMK), 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 2,4-cyclodi-phosphate synthase (MDS), 4-hydroxy-3-methylbut-2-enyl-diphosphate synthase (HDS), and 4-hydroxy-3-methylbut-2-enyl diphosphate reductase (HDR).</p>
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<p>The figure shows a range of secondary metabolites like (−)-catechin, (+)-catechin, cnicin, ocimenones, 8-hydroxyquinoline, deoxymikanolide, emodin, methyl jasmonate, physcion, and parthenin. These compounds are known to play significant roles in plant invasion strategies through allelopathic interactions, where they inhibit native plant growth, disrupt beneficial mycorrhizal fungi associations, and alter the microbial dynamics in the soil. For example, catechins released by invasive species can suppress native vegetation, while methyl jasmonate and emodin may influence plant defense mechanisms and stress responses, enhancing the competitive ability of invasive plants. These biochemical strategies give invasive species a significant ecological advantage.</p>
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<p>Shows the roles of allelopathy and allelobiosis in plant interactions, focusing on interspecific and intraspecific relationships. Allelopathy, represented by chemical signals, affects the growth of nearby plants, either inhibiting or promoting seed germination. This interaction influences interspecific dynamics, as seen in the impact of <span class="html-italic">Cuscuta chinensis</span> on different host species. Allelobiosis involves signaling between plants, including kin recognition, which allows intraspecific regulation of growth and adaptation. Together, these processes shape how plants, both within the same species and among different species, adapt to parasitic pressures and competition.</p>
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<p>Illustrates the transfer of allelopathic compounds from a donor plant to a receiver plant through various pathways, including leaching, volatilization, root exudation, and decomposition. Compounds are released into the soil via precipitation or root exudation, volatilized into the atmosphere, or deposited through decomposing plant material, where they can be absorbed by neighboring plants. This chemical exchange plays an important role in shaping plant interactions, influencing competitive dynamics and ecosystem structure.</p>
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<p>Role of secondary metabolites in plant–insect interactions.</p>
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<p>Conceptual illustration showing how invasive plants affect the symbiotic mycorrhizal fungi in native plant roots Solid arrows indicate change; dotted arrows indicate possible relationships.</p>
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<p>Conceptual framework illustrating the symbiotic relationship between plants and mycorrhizal fungi (adapted from Martin et al [<a href="#B236-plants-13-03162" class="html-bibr">236</a>] Roots secrete signaling molecules (1) that enhance AMF spore germinations (2) and mycelium branching in the soil. AMF secretes mycorrhizal factors (3), which are recognized by receptor proteins in root cells (4) and then stimulate the calcium signaling pathway (5) to pledgee creation of invasion lines of the mycorrhizal fungi (6). After that, nutrient and carbon exchange between mycorrhizae also requires a series of enzymes and transport proteins at the root–mycorrhiza interface (7).</p>
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