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  • Review Article
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Metastasis

Metastasis to bone: causes, consequences and therapeutic opportunities

Nature Reviews Cancer volume 2, pages 584–593 (2002)Cite this article

Key Points

  • Common tumours, such as those of the breast, lung and prostate, frequently metastasize to bone, and in many patients with advanced disease the skeleton is the site of the most significant tumour burden.

  • There are different patterns of bone effects in patients with cancer, ranging from purely or mostly destructive or osteolytic (breast cancer, myeloma), to mostly bone-forming or osteoblastic (prostate cancer).

  • In the case of breast-cancer-causing osteolysis, the main mediator is parathyroid-hormone-related peptide (PTHrP), whereas, in osteoblastic lesions, known mediators include endothelin-1 and platelet-derived growth factor.

  • In osteolytic metastasis, there is a 'vicious cycle' in the bone microenvironment, whereby bi-directional interactions between tumour cells and osteoclasts lead to both osteolysis and tumour growth.

  • The molecular mechanisms that are responsible for this vicious cycle are now being clarified and involve tumour-cell production of PTHrP and bone-derived growth factors that are released as a consequence of increased bone resorption.

  • Bisphosphonates interrupt the vicious cycle and cause not only a reduction in osteolytic bone lesions, but also decrease the tumour burden in bone.

  • More-effective treatments for interruption of the vicious cycle are now being developed, including specifically neutralizing antibodies to PTHrP and more efficacious osteoclast inhibitors.

Abstract

The most common human cancers — lung, breast and prostate — have a great avidity for bone, leading to painful and untreatable consequences. What makes some cancers, but not others, metastasize to bone, and how do they alter its physiology? Some of the molecular mechanisms that are responsible have recently been identified, and provide new molecular targets for drug development.

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Figure 1: Types of bone metastasis.
Figure 2: The steps involved in tumour-cell metastasis from a primary site to the skeleton.
Figure 3: The RANK–RANKL system in osteolytic bone metastases.
Figure 4: Model for osteoblastic bone metastases caused by prostate cancer.
Figure 5: The 'vicious cycle' hypothesis of osteolytic metastases.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center, 7703 Floyd Curl Drive, MS 7877, San Antonio, 78229-3900, Texas, USA

    Gregory R. Mundy

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  1. Gregory R. Mundy
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DATABASES

Cancer.gov

bone cancer

breast cancer

lung cancer

myeloma

ovarian carcinoma

pancreatic carcinoma

prostate cancer

renal carcinoma

LocusLink

alkaline phosphatase

BMP2

BMP3

BMP4

BMP6

type I collagen

endothelin-1

endothelin-A receptor

ERBB2

FGF1

FGF2

hepatocyte growth factor

IGF1

IGFBPs

IKK

IL-1

IL-6

IL-8

IL-11

IL-18

JUN

lymphotoxin

MAPK

MIP1α

NF-kB

oestrogen receptor

OPG

osteocalcin

PDGF

PSA

PTHrP

RANK

RANKL

SMAD

TGF-α

TGF-β

TGF-β2

uPA

Medscape DrugInfo

alendronate

pamidronate

OMIM

Paget's disease

FURTHER INFORMATION

Medline Plus Bone Cancer Site

University of Michigan Comprehensive Cancer Center — Bone Metastasis Facts

Glossary

LEUKOERYTHROBLASTIC ANAEMIA

A type of anaemia that is associated with cancers that involve the bone marrow, and that is accompanied by increased production of white blood cells.

ALKALINE PHOSPHATASE

An enzyme that is found on the cell surface of osteoblasts, is involved in bone mineralization and is used as a serum marker of increased osteoblast activity.

BONE-SCANNING AGENTS

Agents, such as bisphosphonates, which localize to bone, that can be tagged with an isotope that allows their detection by imaging techniques. These are used in clinical medicine to detect sites of active bone turnover or bone disease.

OSTEOCALCIN

A protein constituent of bone. Its function remains to be clarified, but circulating levels are used as a marker of osteoblast activity.

MYELOMA

A neoplastic disorder of the plasma cells that is associated with extensive bone destruction and production of large amounts of specific immunoglobulins.

CALVARIA

The skull bones. Rodent calvaria are frequently used in organ culture experiments to determine the effects of factors or compounds that stimulate or inhibit bone resorption or bone formation.

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Mundy, G. Metastasis to bone: causes, consequences and therapeutic opportunities. Nat Rev Cancer 2, 584–593 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1038/nrc867

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