nanoscale views

Foams can be great examples of mechanical metamaterials.  

Fig. 1 from the linked paper

Here is a light-hearted bit of research that touches on some fun physics.  As you might readily imagine, there is a good deal of interdisciplinary and industrial interest in wanting to create fine fibers out of solution-based materials.  One approach, which has historical roots that go back even two hundred years before this 1887 paper, is electrospinning.  Take a material of interest, dissolve it in a solvent, and feed a drop of that solution onto the tip of an extremely sharp metal needle.  Then apply a big voltage (say a few to tens of kV) between that tip and a nearby grounded substrate.  If the solution has some amount of conductivity, the liquid will form a cone on the tip, and at sufficiently large voltages and small target distances, the droplet will be come unstable and form a jet off into the tip-target space.  With the right range of fluid properties (viscosity, conductivity, density, concentration) and the right evaporation rate for the solvent, the result is a continuously forming, drying fiber that flows off the end of the tip.  A further instability amplifies any curves in the fiber path, so that you get a spiraling fiber spinning off onto the substrate.   There are many uses for such fibers, which can be very thin.

 A few tidbits that I encountered recently:

• The saga of Ranga Dias at Rochester draws to a close, as described by the Wall Street Journal.  It took quite some time for this to propagate through their system.  This is after multiple internal investigations that somehow were ineffective, an external investigation, and a lengthy path through university procedures (presumably because universities have to be careful not to shortcut any of their processes, or they open themselves up to lawsuits).
• At around the same time, Mikhail Eremets passed away.  He was a pioneer in high pressure measurements of material properties and in superconductivity in hydrides.
• Also coincident, this preprint appeared on the arXiv, a brief statement summarizing some of the evidence for relatively high temperature superconductivity in hydrides at high pressure.
• Last week Carl Bender gave a very nice colloquium at Rice, where he spoke about a surprising result.  When we teach undergrad quantum mechanics, we tell students that the Hamiltonian (the expression with operators that gives the total energy of a quantum system) has to be Hermitian, because this guarantees that the energy eigenvalues have to be real numbers.  Generically, non-hermitian Hamiltonians would imply complex energies, which would imply non-conservation of total probability. That is one way of treating open quantum systems, when particles can come and go, but for closed quantum systems, we like real energies.  Anyway, it turns out that one can write an explicitly complex Hamiltonian that nonetheless has a completely real energy spectrum, and this has deep connections to PT symmetry conservation.  Here is a nice treatment of this.
• Just tossing this out:  The entire annual budget for the state of Arkansas is $6.5B.  The annual budget for Stanford University is $9.5B.  

More soon.

A helpful ad from Science Made Stupid.

Since before the development of micro- and nanoelectromechanical techniques, there has been an interest in making actual mechanical widgets that show quantum behavior.  There is no reason that we should not be able to make a mechanical resonator, like a guitar string or a cantilevered beam, with a high enough resonance frequency so that when it is placed at low temperatures ( \(\hbar \omega \gg k_{\mathrm{B}}T\)), the resonator can sit in its quantum mechanical ground state.  Indeed, achieving this was Science's breakthrough of the year in 2010.  

This past week, a paper was published from ETH Zurich in which an aluminum nitride mechanical resonator was actually used as a qubit, where the ground and first excited states of this quantum (an)harmonic oscillator represented \(|0 \rangle\) and \(|1 \rangle\).  They demonstrate actual quantum gate operations on this mechanical system (which is coupled to a more traditional transmon qubit - the setup is explained in this earlier paper).  

One key trick to being able to make a qubit out of a mechanical oscillator is to have sufficiently large anharmonicity.  An ideal, perfectly harmonic quantum oscillator has an energy spectrum given by \((n + 1/2)\hbar \omega\), where \(n\) is the number of quanta of excitations in the resonator.  In that situation, the energy difference between adjacent levels is always \(\hbar \omega\).  The problem with this from the qubit perspective is, you want to have a quantum two-level system, and how can you controllably drive transitions just between a particular pair of levels when all of the adjacent level transitions cost the same energy?  The authors of this recent paper have achieved a strong anharmonicity, basically making the "spring" of the mechanical resonator softer in one displacement direction than the other.  The result is that the energy difference between levels \(|0\rangle\) and \(|1\rangle\) is very different than the energy difference between levels \(|1\rangle\) and \(|2\rangle\), etc.  (In typical superconducting qubits, the resonance is not mechanical but an electrical \(LC\)-type, and a Josephson junction acts like a non-linear inductor, giving the desired anharmonic properties.)  This kind of mechanical anharmonicity means that you can effectively have interactions between vibrational excitations ("phonon-phonon"), analogous to what the circuit QED folks can do.  Neat stuff.

Time for blogging has continued to be scarce, but here are a few papers to distract (and for readers who are US citizens:  vote if you have not already done so!).

• Reaching back, this preprint by Aharonov, Collins, Popescu talks about a thought experiment in which angular momentum can seemingly be transferred from one region to another even though the probability of detecting spin-carrying particles between the two regions can be made arbitrarily low.  I've always found these kinds of discussions to be fun, even when the upshot for me is usually, "I must not really understand the subtleties of weak measurements in quantum mechanics."  This is a specific development based on the quantum Cheshire cat idea.  I know enough to understand that when one is talking about post-selection in quantum experiments, some questions are just not well-posed.  If we send a wavepacked of photons at a barrier, and we detect with a click a photon that (if it was in the middle of the incident wavepacket) seems to have therefore traversed the barrier faster than c, that doesn't mean much, since the italicized parenthetical clause above is uncheckable in principle.  
• Much more recently, this paper out last week in Nature reports the observation of superconductivity below 200 mK in a twisted bilayer of WSe2.  I believe that this is the first observation of superconductivity in a twisted bilayer of an otherwise nonsuperconducting 2D semiconductor other than graphene.  As in the graphene case, the superconductivity shows up at a particular filling of the moiré lattice, and interestingly seems to happen around zero applied vertical electric field (displacement field) in the device.  I don't have much to say here beyond that it's good to see interesting results in a broader class of materials - that suggests that there is a more general principle at work than "graphene is special".
• This preprint from last week from Klein et al. is pretty impressive.  It's been known for over 25 years (see here) that it is possible to use a single-electron transistor (SET) as a scannable charge sensor and potentiometer.  Historically, making these devices and operating them has been a real art.  They are fragile, static-sensitive, and fabricating them from evaporated metal on the tips of drawn optical fibers is touchy.  There have been advances in recent years from multiple quarters, and this paper demonstrates a particularly interesting idea: Use a single charge trap in a layer of WSe2 as the SET, and effectively put the sample of interest on the scannable tip.  This is an outgrowth of the quantum twisting microscope.

As you can tell from my posting frequency lately, I have been unusually busy.  I hope to be writing about more condensed matter and nano science soon.   In the meantime, I realized that I have not re-posted or updated my primer on how tenure-track faculty searches work in physics since 2015.  Academia hasn't changed much since then, but even though the previous posts can be found via search engines, it's probably a good idea to put this out there again.  Interestingly, here is a link to a Physics Today article from 2001 about this topic, and here is a link to the same author's 2020 updated version.

Here are the steps in the typical tenure-track faculty search process.  Non-tenure-track hiring can be very similar depending on the institution.  (Just to define the terminology:  "Teaching professor" usually = non-tenure-track, expected to teach several courses per semester, usually no expectations of research except perhaps education research, no lab space.  "Research professor" usually = non-tenure-track, research responsibilities and usually not expected to teach; often entirely paid on research grant funds, either their own or those of a tenure-track PI.)

• The search gets authorized. This is a big step - it determines what the position is, exactly: junior vs. junior or senior; a new faculty line vs. a replacement vs. a bridging position (i.e. we'll hire now, and when X retires in three years, we won't look for a replacement then). The main challenges are two-fold: (1) Ideally the department has some strategic plan in place to determine the area that they'd like to fill. Note that not all departments do this - occasionally you'll see a very general ad out there that basically says, "ABC University Dept. of Physics is authorized to search for a tenure-track position in, umm, physics. We want to hire the smartest person that we can, regardless of subject area." The challenge with this is that there may actually be divisions within the department about where the position should go, and these divisions can play out in a process where different factions within the department veto each other. This is pretty rare, but not unheard of. (2) The university needs to have the resources in place to make a hire.  In tight financial times, this can become more challenging. I know of public universities having to cancel searches in 2008/2009 even after the authorization if the budget cuts get too severe. A well-run university will be able to make these judgments with some lead time and not have to back-track.
• Note that some universities and colleges/schools within universities have other processes outside the traditional "department argues for and gets a faculty line to fill" method.  "Cluster hiring", for example, is when, say, the university decides to hire several faculty members whose research is all thematically related to "energy and sustainability", a broad topic that could clearly involve chemistry, physics, materials science, chemical engineering, electrical engineering, etc.  The logistics of cluster hiring can vary quite a bit from place to place.  I have opinions about the best ways to do this; one aspect that my own institution does well is to recognize that anyone hired has to have an actual primary departmental home - that way the tenure process and the teaching responsibilities are unambiguous.

• The search committee gets put together. In my dept., the chair asks people to serve. If the search is in condensed matter, for example, there will be several condensed matter people on the committee, as well as representation from the other major groups in the department, and one knowledgeable person from outside the department (in chemistry or ECE, for example). The chairperson or chairpeople of the committee meet with the committee or at least those in the focus area, and come up with draft text for the ad.  In cross-departmental searches (as in the cluster hiring described above), a dean or equivalent would likely put together the committee.

• The ad gets placed, and canvassing begins of lots of people who might know promising candidates. A committed effort is made to make sure that all qualified women and underrepresented minority candidates know about the position and are asked to apply (reaching out through relevant professional societies, social media, society mailing lists - this is in the search plan). Generally, the ad really does list what the department is interested in. It's a huge waste of everyone's time to have an ad that draws a large number of inappropriate (i.e. don't fit the dept.'s needs) applicants. The exception to this is the generic ad like the type I mentioned above. Back when I was applying for jobs, MIT and Berkeley had run the same ad every year, grazing for talent. They seem to do just fine. The other exception is when a university already knows who they want to get for a senior position, and writes an ad so narrow that only one person is really qualified. I've never seen this personally, but I've heard anecdotes.

• In the meantime, a search plan is formulated and approved by the dean. The plan details how the search will work, what the timeline is, etc. This plan is largely a checklist to make sure that we follow all the right procedures and don't screw anything up. It also brings to the fore the importance of "beating the bushes" - see above. A couple of people on the search committee will be particularly in charge of oversight on affirmative action/equal opportunity issues.

• The dean usually meets with the committee and we go over the plan, including a refresher for everyone on what is or is not appropriate for discussion in an interview (for an obvious example, you can't ask about someone's religion, or their marital status).

• Applications come in.  This is all done electronically, thank goodness.  The fact that I feel this way tells you about how old I am.  Some online systems can be clunky, since occasionally universities try to use the same software to hire faculty as they do to hire groundskeepers, but generally things go smoothly.  The two most common software systems out there in the US are Interfolio and Academic Jobs Online.  Each have their own idiosyncracies.  Every year when I post this, someone argues that it's ridiculous to make references write letters, and that the committee should do a sort first and ask for letters later.  I understand this perspective, but I tend to disagree. Letters can contain an enormous amount of information, and sometimes it is possible to identify outstanding candidates due to input from the letters that might otherwise be missed. (For example, suppose someone's got an incredible piece of postdoctoral work about to come out that hasn't been published yet. It carries more weight for letters to highlight this, since the candidate isn't exactly unbiased about their own forthcoming publications.)  

• The committee begins to review the applications. Generally the members of the committee who are from the target discipline do a first pass, to at least weed out the inevitable applications from people who are not qualified according to the ad (i.e. no PhD; senior people wanting a senior position even though the ad is explicitly for a junior slot; people with research interests or expertise in the wrong area). Applications are roughly rated by everyone into a top, middle, and bottom category. Each committee member comes up with their own ratings, so there is naturally some variability from person to person. Some people are "harsh graders". Some value high impact publications more than numbers of papers. Others place more of an emphasis on the research plan, the teaching statement, or the rec letters. Yes, people do value the teaching statement - we wouldn't waste everyone's time with it if we didn't care. Interestingly, often (not always) the people who are the strongest researchers also have very good ideas and actually care about teaching. This shouldn't be that surprising. Creative people can want to express their creativity in the classroom as well as the lab.  "Type A" organized people often bring that intensity to teaching as well.

• Once all the folders have been reviewed and rated, a relatively short list (say 20-25 or so out of 120 applications) is formed, and the committee meets to hash that down to, in the end, four or five to invite for interviews. In my experience, this happens by consensus, with the target discipline members having a bit more sway in practice since they know the area and can appreciate subtleties - the feasibility and originality of the proposed research, the calibration of the letter writers (are they first-rate folks? Do they always claim every candidate is the best postdoc they've ever seen?). I'm not kidding about consensus; I can't recall a case where there really was a big, hard argument within a committee on which I've served. I know I've been lucky in this respect, and that other institutions can be much more fiesty. The best, meaning most useful, letters, by the way, are the ones who say things like "This candidate is very much like CCC and DDD were at this stage in their careers." Real comparisons like that are much more helpful than "The candidate is bright, creative, and a good communicator." Regarding research plans, the best ones (for me, anyway) give a good sense of near-term plans, medium-term ideas, and the long-term big picture, all while being relatively brief and written so that a general committee member can understand much of it (why the work is important, what is new) without being an expert in the target field. It's also good to know that, at least at my university, if we come across an applicant that doesn't really fit our needs, but meshes well with an open search in another department, we send over the file. This, like the consensus stuff above, is a benefit of good, nonpathological communication within the department and between departments.

That's pretty much it up to the interview stage. No big secrets. No automated ranking schemes based exclusively on h numbers or citation counts.  

I already wrote about this issue here back in August, but I wanted to highlight a policy statement that I wrote with colleagues as part of Rice's Baker Institute's Election 2024: Policy Playbook, which "delivers nonpartisan, expert insights into key issues at stake on the 2024 campaign trail and beyond. Presented by Rice University and the Baker Institute for Public Policy, the series offers critical context, analysis, and recommendations to inform policymaking in the United States and Texas."

The situation is summarized in this graph.  It will be very difficult to achieve the desired policy goals of the CHIPS and Science Act if Congress doesn't come remotely close to appropriations that match the targets in the Act.  What is not shown in this plot are the cuts to STEM education pieces of NSF and other agencies, despite the fact that a main goal of the Act is supposed to be education and workforce development to support the semiconductor industry.

Anyway, please take a look.  It's a very brief document.