Abstract
Large scale online kernel learning aims to build an efficient and scalable kernel-based predictive model incrementally from a sequence of potentially infinite data points. Current state-of-the-art large scale online kernel learning focuses on improving efficiency. Two key approaches to gain efficiency through approximation are (1) limiting the number of support vectors, and (2) using an approximate feature map. They often employ a kernel with a feature map with intractable dimensionality. While these approaches can deal with large scale datasets efficiently, this outcome is achieved by compromising predictive accuracy because of the approximation. We offer an alternative approach that puts the kernel used at the heart of the approach. It focuses on creating a sparse and finite-dimensional feature map of a kernel called Isolation Kernel. Using this new approach, to achieve the above aim of large scale online kernel learning becomes extremely simple—simply use Isolation Kernel instead of a kernel having a feature map with intractable dimensionality. We show that, using Isolation Kernel, large scale online kernel learning can be achieved efficiently without sacrificing accuracy.
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The code is available at https://github.com/LIBOL/KOL.
As pointed in Ting et al. (2018), Laplacian kernel can be expressed as \(\exp (-\gamma \sum ^d_{\jmath =1} |x_\jmath - y_\jmath |) = \psi ^{-\frac{1}{d} \sum ^d_{\jmath =1} |x_\jmath - y_\jmath |}\), where \(\gamma = \frac{\log (\psi )}{d}\). Laplacian kernel has been shown to be competitive to Gaussian kernel in SVM in a recent study (Ting et al. 2018).
The two-class conversions from the original class labels were done for three multi-class datasets: mnist: \(\{3, 4, 6, 7, 9\}\) and \(\{0, 1, 2, 5, 8\}\). smallNORB: \(\{1,4\}\) and \(\{0, 2, 3\}\). cifar-10: \(\{ 0, 2, 3, 4, 5\}\) and \(\{1, 6, 7, 8, 9\}\).
This simulation is more realistic than the previous online experiments which assume that class label of each point is available immediately after a prediction is made to enable model update (Lu et al. 2016). In practice, the algorithm can be made to be in the training mode whenever class labels are available, either partially or the entire block.
Note that the first points in the accuracy plots can swing wildly because each is the accuracy on the first data block.
The setting \(b=0\) is used in the experiment in this section. This appears to be the best setting for the datasets we used here. \(b>0\) not only produces poorer accuracy on some datasets, but yields a larger number of features.
LIBSVM appears to perform slightly worse than LIBLINEAR in some datasets with IK\(_a\). This is due to the different heuristics used in the optimisation procedures. Otherwise, both LIBSVM and LIBLINEAR shall yield exactly the same accuracy since the same feature map of Isolation Kernel is used.
One study has attributed the data independence of the feature generation as the reason of poorer SVM accuracy in comparison with the Nyström method (Yang et al. 2012).
A sparse representation yields vectors having many zero values, where a feature with zero value means that the feature is irrelevant.
Product Quantization (an improvement over vector quantization) aims to reduce storage and retrieval time for conducting approximate nearest neighbour search.
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Acknowledgements
Kai Ming Ting is supported by Natural Science Foundation of China (62076120). Takashi Washio is supported by JST CREST Grant Number JPMJCR1666 and the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) KAKENHI Grant Number 20K21815. A discussion with Jaakko Peltonen at Shonan Meeting in October 2018 has provided the initial impetus in creating the feature map of Isolation Kernel described in this paper.
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Ting, K.M., Wells, J.R. & Washio, T. Isolation kernel: the X factor in efficient and effective large scale online kernel learning. Data Min Knowl Disc 35, 2282–2312 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10618-021-00785-1
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10618-021-00785-1