Social Virtual Reality as a Mental Health Tool: How People Use VRChat to Support Social Connectedness and Wellbeing

Social VR platforms allow users to interact with one another in 3D virtual environments, typically via a head-mounted display. Traditionally, users have interacted with virtual worlds by controlling an avatar in the third person perspective [21]. However, immersive VR allows users to become the avatars that they once controlled, with the body acting as the primary interface between the avatar and the user. This gives users an augmented sense of ownership over their avatars and causes a strong sense of presence within virtual worlds [14].

Social VR has become increasingly popular over the last few years due to advanced VR hardware reducing in cost and thus widening accessibility. Following Meta's announcement of the ‘Metaverse’, there has also been an increased awareness of social VR platforms and the potential harms and benefits of such technology [3].

VRChat is considered one of the most popular social VR platforms, with the number of users rapidly increasing over the COVID-19 pandemic to 22,000 users per day and over 4 million total users [48, 64]. VRChat was created in 2014 and has raised over $95.2 million in investment [63], however remains free for users to play. VRChat is a massively multiplayer online (MMO) social VR application that allows users to interact with one another in a vast range of 3D worlds [61]. Most content found in VRChat is user-generated, meaning members of the VRChat community design and upload virtual ‘worlds’ for others to visit and interact with. This creates an incredibly diverse and unique space with worlds ranging from rooftop bars to Japanese shrines. There are currently over 50,000 community-generated worlds on VRChat available at the time of writing [64]. Users present as custom avatars - avatars can be selected within the platform or created by the user and uploaded to VRchat via Unity, giving VRChat a unique edge over other social VR platforms that have simpler avatar design and selection processes [30]. VRChat is advertised as a platform to “explore, play, and help craft the future of social VR” [66]. VRChat has been described and categorised by Steam and Meta as a massively multiplayer game [65, 66], however VRChat is less focused on gameplay and more centred around creativity and social interaction. While VRChat offers gaming experiences, the innovative avatar and environment authoring affordances make VRChat a unique, diverse and nuanced social platform. We have therefore drawn on both HCI literature related to the design of mental health tools (i.e. not specific to gaming) and mental health and gaming literature.

To date, social VR studies have mainly investigated the use of avatars, non-verbal communication, harassment, player interaction and engagement [31, 9, 21]. Maloney et al. and Freeman et al. have investigated the engagement of teenagers in social VR and the complex interactions between children and adults [18, 29]. Researchers have also studied different aspects of the social VR experience including relationship building and the meaningfulness of virtual activities [41]. More recent research has also discussed the various ethical considerations surrounding social VR as a research space and collaboration tool [30]. Mcveigh-Schultz has conducted significant research into social VR design and how users interact within social VR [34], proposing a design framework for shaping pro-social behaviour in virtual environments [33]. While the literature continues to grow, social VR scholarship remains largely in its infancy with very little knowledge about the effects of social VR on mental health and wellbeing, particularly compared to the large body of literature surrounding mental health and gaming. Studies relating to social VR and the positive impacts it can provide users have been discussed in more detail below (see section 2.4).

There has been a shift in human-computer interaction (HCI) research to reach wider than focusing technology support for mental illness, as “closer consideration of mental wellbeing can increase the effectiveness of mental health interventions, help in preventing mental illness and relapse, and extend our knowledge as to how we can support people to flourish as individuals and enhance their quality of life more generally.” [54]. HCI research has continually established that design artefacts can promote positive feelings of happiness and enjoyment, thus improving wellbeing (e.g [54]). However, in recent years there has been a shift in focus towards design for fulfillment and deeper meaning [67]. Peters et al. suggests designing to satisfy the psychological needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness is key to achieving sustained engagement and wellbeing [39]. Peters et al. argue that achieving these two outcomes have been the focus of HCI design strategies for decades, yet the psychological needs have often been ignored. Wiese [67] presents a multi-stage framework for sustained mental wellbeing that incorporates theory from positive psychology, behavioural science and HCI, and is ultimately centred around designing for both subjective and psychological wellbeing. Psychological wellbeing refers to long-term sustainability of positive mental functioning and can be achieved when a person feels true fulfilment, purpose and meaning in their life, whereas subjective wellbeing is associated with short-term positive emotions [4]. Increasingly, there has been the acknowledgement that technology beyond those designed specifically for mental illness can be appropriated to support mental wellbeing, for instance looking beyond evidence-based cognitive behavioural therapy apps to include the “possibility of eclectic therapeutic techniques” [53]. In the real world, people appropriate a range of technologies to support mental wellbeing, including technologies intended for gaming [27, 56].

Gaming has historically been miscategorized as an anti-social hobby considered to have little relevance to the real world [43]. However, an increasing body of evidence has begun to show that gaming can facilitate social connectedness and promote positive mental health [23, 58–60]. Regular engagement with gaming has been shown to decrease stress [42], improve confidence [68] and positively change mood [59]. Given that males currently dominate the online gaming community and are less likely to seek mental health support [16, 17], online gaming has emerged as a non-traditional method of engaging men with wellbeing enhancing activities.

Online games have become increasingly social, allowing players to benefit from community support and social connectedness. Douglas et al. found that games with social aspects encouraged players to become more social both within games and in the outside world [20]. Work from both Vella and Tyack into recreational online gaming, found that gaming provides players with a sense of autonomy and competence, with social gaming providing high levels of relatedness [58, 59]. This was also hypothesized by Ryan et al. who claimed games were primarily motivating to the extent of fulfilling the basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness. These three psychological needs are required to facilitate motivation and promote personal growth, as described by Ryan and Deci's Self-determination Theory (SDT) [46].

As mentioned above, the impacts of social VR on mental wellbeing are not extensively documented in literature given that the field remains in its infancy. Previous work has however highlighted various ways that social VR has positively impacted users. McVeigh-Schultz provides a qualitative account of social VR developers, highlighting the design features and considerations that go into shaping prosocial interactions in social VR [33]. For example, the positioning of social catalysts and attention focusing objects within social VR environments to “serve as a social lubricant”. This demonstrates the intended social nature of social VR platforms, with platforms carefully developed to facilitate and encourage authentic social interactions. Work by Baker and authors has demonstrated the acceptance of social VR as a communication tool for older adults [5]. Prior work in the field of HCI has also shown that embodiment in social VR can improve users confidence and reduce fear of pressured social situations [17]. Researchers have also explored how social VR affects meaningful human relationships [70] and social VR users come to value the social VR community and make friends easily [41].

We hope to build on this previous work, and to the field of HCI, by documenting users’ experiences of consciously using a social VR application as a mental health tool, and thus highlighting the significant potential of social VR for providing mental wellbeing support. This research was conducted during a global pandemic when opportunities for social interaction were significantly restricted, and as such amplified the participants’ mental wellbeing needs. The presented work builds on the previous research into social VR by providing in-depth data from social VR users describing the role of social VR in alleviating loneliness and isolation during the COVID-19 pandemic. The findings in this study demonstrate that social VR platforms are being appropriated as mental health tools, these findings are particularly important for social VR users, developers and the wider research community and will be discussed in Discussion section 6.2.

An online scoping questionnaire was designed and distributed to explore the current use of VR and to identify links between VR and mental wellbeing. The questionnaire included both open and closed questions and was divided into two sections: VR use and personal wellbeing. The VR section asked participants about the VR technology they currently use, their primary use of VR and their favourite VR features, platforms, and games. The second section explored participants’ perception of personal wellbeing, including asking how they relax after a tough day and if they have ever associated VR use with mental wellbeing. The questions around mental wellbeing included the use of visual cards, developed by Ayobi et al. [49]. The cards were adapted and used to help participants reflect on their wellbeing and share their views. This section also included asking participants if they engage with any VR apps that affect their mental wellbeing. The participants were asked to provide basic demographic information including age, gender and ethnicity.

Two prominent themes were created during the analysis of the questionnaire data: 1) There is potential for recreational VR to improve mental wellbeing; and 2) Social VR applications, especially VRChat, are associated with social connection and reducing social isolation.

21 participants reported playing videogames after a tough day. This could be for numerous reasons such as using videogames to relax, escape, socialise or engage in rewarding competitive games. These findings support research claiming that gaming is often used to restore wellbeing after negative life experiences [58] and thus supports the potential for VR gaming to be used as a tool for mental wellbeing. 25 out of the 32 participants reported their primary use of VR was for gaming, with the other participants reporting primary use being entertainment, education and physical exercise. When explicitly asked if participants used any VR apps to reflect on or improve their personal wellbeing, only half (16) said yes, reporting both physical fitness apps such as BeatSaber and SynthRider and social apps such as VRChat and Altspace. When asked if they thought VR could be used to support mental wellbeing during social isolation, 30 participants responded yes, with over half of the participants suggesting social VR applications, including VRChat, as a method of facilitating remote social connection and reducing feelings of social isolation.

As the aim of this study was to identify links between VR and mental wellbeing, particularly in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, the responses identified social VR apps as impacting mental wellbeing most significantly. The participants in the questionnaire associated social VR platforms, most commonly VRChat, as a method of remotely socialising and connecting with other VR users. To the authors knowledge, there are currently no empirical studies that explore the active use of social VR platforms for supporting mental wellbeing. Given that positive social interactions and connections are positively correlated with mental health and wellbeing [47], identifying whether social VR can be used as a tool to provide social support and impact mental wellbeing could be greatly beneficial.

This study involved conducting virtual contextual interviews within VRChat to provide an in-depth exploration of user engagement and the perceived mental wellbeing effects. The interviews were conducted at a time and virtual location chosen by the participants. This ensured participants felt safe and comfortable during the interview, allowing for open and free flowing conversation. Conducting interviews at a location chosen by the participant is common practice amongst researchers, particularly for sensitive interviews [39]. This practice was therefore translated into the virtual world and proved effective for building rapport with participants.

This theme provides details of how users experienced improvements in their wellbeing and changes in their behaviour both in VRChat and in the offline world. Firstly, we present users’ experiences of becoming more confident when engaging socially with others and experiencing changes in their behaviour and ‘wellbeing needs’. This was mainly attributed to the anonymity provided by avatars and the acceptance of the wider VRChat community. Secondly, we outline the ways in which participants’ experiences of VRChat as a safe environment led to a reduction in anxiety and an improved sense of wellbeing. Thirdly, we discuss how the process of making friends and socializing in VRChat was the primary reason participants enjoyed the platform and kept returning. Lastly, we describe how some participants experienced dissatisfaction with their offline lives after using VRChat.

COVID-19 was a time of heightened mental health issues for many people for many reasons, not least because of enforced social isolation. Participants, like many other people, turned to VRChat and used it to improve their mental wellbeing and as an escape from the real world. Participants described contributing to and benefitting from a large support network of VRChat users over COVID-19: “being able to support people as well as get supported is pretty sweet.” (P9, Female). The help and support participants received from VRChat during COVID-19 was essential to maintain their wellbeing and allow them to satisfy the need to socialise: “obviously you can't go out IRL and just meet people or go see a movie or anything so I'd say VRchat has really helped me in that sense. Like I can now make plans, meet people, socialise and it's taken away the feeling of isolation and loneliness” (P1, Male).

Of the 15 participants, 5 started using VRChat during the COVID-9 global pandemic. Of the 10 that were already VRChat users, they all reported an increase in time spent in VRChat since the start of COVID-19. Many participants reported their regular use of VRChat over the past year was motivated by the global pandemic and the quarantine mandates. Participants identified VRChat as a way to stay social and meet other people during legally mandated quarantine and lockdowns that restricted physical interaction and movement: “when there was talk of quarantine I thought hey I wanna be ready for this shit so made the effort to meet people.” (P5, Male). Many people were lonely during COVID-19 quarantine periods with VRChat helping to alleviate this loneliness. Participants reported joining VRChat because of: “Loneliness because of the covid. It is very strict in our country with the covid so I can't meet my friends so yea I came to the VRchat to talk” (P13, Male).

As mentioned above, participants reported discovering different parts of themselves and exploring the social aspects of their personality. With participants unable to socialise in the offline world, VRChat allowed for a virtual world in which to socialize and in which to gain social connectedness: “I mean the thing is that my life became virtual because of covid but then it'll stay virtual cause of the people” (P9, Female). The importance of socialising also became apparent to some participants: “I don't think I realised until really covid hit about how much I actually like interacting with people” (P10, Male). VRChat therefore became a means for users “to feel less alone” (P7, Male) and satisfy their craving for social connection or needing a social outlet: "the help it's given me during this time [COVID-19] of…scratching that social itch has been immense and I'm very grateful for it" (P1, Male). Some participants even discussed how the feeling of offline loneliness is something that connects users in VRChat, as they find “[isolated] people like me” (P4, Male) and they share these experiences: “we are all lonely so we all want to talk and it's nice you know it's awesome” (P13, Male). The people they met and connected with were in similar situations to them with regards to shyness and confidence, and their connections and shared experience with other users has parallels to group therapy approaches to mental wellbeing.

For participants who used VRChat before the pandemic, they reported changing their use and becoming more reliant on it than before. For example, participants discussed how they used VRChat for gaming and having fun prior to the pandemic, but now that they were socially isolated, they use it ‘more seriously’ and engaged with a lot more people than before: “I was only really on it for the games before covid but now it's for the people.” (P11, Male). Participants reported an increased use of VRChat during lockdown periods and a reliance on the app to improve their mood and wellbeing: “I've been stuck at home for the entirety of the year so I've basically only been on here and I've gotten on here to meet new friends… VRChat definitely has changed my way of meeting people and being social” (P8, Male). Participants also discussed how VRChat brings positivity into their life despite being in mandated isolation: “I've just been on a rocket and met really pretty people and it gives you something to think about and to look forward to and at times where there's nothing to look forward to then that feeling means a lot.” (P9, Female). In a period of enforced isolation and social distancing, this technology was appropriated for mental wellbeing support by an increasing number of users.

Some participants linked lowered anxiousness and the relief of loneliness through their use and appropriation of VRChat into their everyday lives during the pandemic. Previous unhealthy habits such as overeating to counter loneliness could be replaced by instead socializing in an environment that did not exacerbate social anxiety: “it's really scratched my loneliness itch even though I'm super anxious I get lonely like if there is no one present or talking to me I just start eating myself alive so being able to just hop on and see people, even if its people I don't know, has made that a lot easier” (P6, Female). All the participants reported the personal social benefits of VRChat with most highlighting they have felt a reduction in loneliness: “in VRChat it's kind of easier to not be so lonely” (P13, Male).

VRChat became a tool for mental well-being because it provided a safe space for the participants, where they did not feel emotionally or physically threatened. Participants were able to practice social interaction and improve their social skills. Aspects such as mirrors and glitches scaffolded social interactions so they were not as scary, and participants’ comfort and familiarity with them allowed them to talk to others. Participants reported explicitly logging in to improve their mental well-being, and in one case, to explicitly reduce the possibility of self-harm. While the findings reported above have detailed the many ways in which VRChat impacts users mental health and wellbeing, this theme describes the ways in which VRChat was deliberately and consciously used as a tool for mental health and wellbeing by participants.

We have reported on the various ways that participants explicitly use VRChat as a tool for improving their mental health and wellbeing. Specifically, we found participants that described themselves as shy and anxious reported using VRChat to practice social interaction. VRChat can therefore be considered a non-traditional method of providing cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) for people who are shy or anxious. VR exposure therapy is a CBT method commonly used in the treatment of anxiety [10, 13, 19]. The concept of VR exposure therapy is to present a feared scenario or situation and then present a realistic outcome to the scenario, often disproving an irrational feared outcome [12]. Continual exposure to the feared environment can reduce anxiety over time. For successful and safe VR exposure therapy, environments must be controlled and safe so as to not cause distress [32]. In many ways VRChat provides a platform for people with social anxiety to continually be exposed to their fear of socializing in a safe manner. VRChat users have the ability to block other users, immediately transport to another world or exit the game entirely. Participants in this study that reported suffering from social anxiety, also reported being able to practice social interaction in VRChat which led to them trusting others and socializing, in some cases for the first time in their lives. Some of which went on to describe now feeling more confident in social situations in the real world. The process of being able to practice social interaction is aided by design features in Social VR (Mirrors as described in Findings). This suggests that participants were using VRChat to engage in a version of exposure therapy and reduce their anxiety by repeatedly exposing themselves to social situations that they fear in the offline world. This is an exciting avenue worth exploring in much greater depth as the ability to provide accessible and safe support to people with social anxiety, who very rarely seek support, would have enormous benefit. This also further demonstrates the extent to which VRChat can be used as a tool for mental wellbeing. There are however significant risks associated with appropriating VRChat as a mental health tool when this is not the explicit intended use of the platform. Particularly for users who become solely reliant and dependable on VRChat as a social outlet and wellbeing tool, as was the case for some participants in this study. The risks and implications of this have been discussed below.

The findings from this study demonstrate how social VR can be used to facilitate and promote strong social relationships between users, leading to perceived improvements in mental health and wellbeing. The benefits of social connection and support have been well documented in the field of psychology and mental health, with social VR presenting as a platform for people to experience these benefits virtually and remotely [24]. This was particularly advantageous during the COVID-19 pandemic when many people around the world were isolated and under quarantine restrictions. It is therefore not novel or surprising to find that people benefit from socially interacting with others in VRChat, with previous work reporting similar findings [5, 16, 17, 41]. Interestingly however, this study has highlighted that during the COVID-19 pandemic, VRChat was being used explicitly and deliberately as a tool for improving mental health and wellbeing, helping users to alleviate feelings of loneliness and isolation. From previous work, we know that the use of social VR and embodiment lead to positive impacts on users, however no studies to date have provided accounts of how people explicitly use VRChat as a tool to improve and maintain their mental health. This finding has important implications for social VR users, developers and the wider research community.

Firstly, social VR users in this study were extremely enthusiastic and positive about their use of VRChat as a mental wellbeing tool, with some participants explaining it is the only place they can talk about their feelings and manage their mental health and wellbeing. This was particularly true for participants who described being shy or having social anxiety. While it is positive that these participants have found a way to improve their wellbeing and mental health, we must consider the potentially harmful effects of using social VR as a primary method of socialising and improving mental health. For example, the use of social VR, where users are anonymous, could be viewed as a method of escapism and avoidance from the offline world. While a certain level of escapism can be positive and allow people to take a break from their lives, it can also lead to negative patterns of behaviours and consequences for their mental and physical health, as previously documented [25, 35]. If social VR users become dependent on social VR as a coping mechanism for real life, they may be more susceptible to problematic and addictive use of social VR platforms. This phenomenon has been extensively researched in psychology and gaming literature, whereby the instant gratification of online gaming and socialising is considered superior to that in real life. Less is currently known about the dangers of problematic and addictive behaviours of social VR platforms. Given that most participants in this study were unable to socialise in real life (due to the COVID-19 pandemic), it remains unknown how their use of social VR will change or evolve after the COVID-19 pandemic and the effects this will have on their mental health and wellbeing.

For social VR developers, understanding how social VR platforms are currently appropriated is essential to ensure adequate affordances and safety features are considered. There is currently significant disruption in the social VR landscape, due to the announcement of Metas ‘Metaverse’, with uncertainty as to how the field will change in the coming years. We therefore must ensure that as the VR field evolves, we consider how these apps are being used and the effects future development could have on these users. As discussed in Related Work (section 2.4), social VR platforms are designed carefully and methodically, to facilitate and enhance social interactions [33]. Moving forward, this must remain a priority and focus, and social VR developers must consider and be aware of how their platforms are being used.

For the HCI research community, social VR remains a novel field of study with much still to be understood about the experiences of how different user groups interact and appropriate social VR. HCI researchers should follow advice from Maloney [14] who outlines the ethical considerations and future directions for social VR as an emerging research space. We found spending ample time on VRChat an essential and insightful part of this work and strongly recommend researchers in this field do the same to gain empathy and insight into the nuances and culture of the social VR platform intended for study. Researchers should also be considerate of the social VR environment when conducting research given that many users rely on the safety and anonymity of the space to improve their mental health and wellbeing. Below, we now discuss how the design of social VR draws parallels to the design of tools for mental health and wellbeing.

VRChat as a mental health tool draws comparisons to many tools that have been specifically designed for supporting mental health and psychological wellbeing [40, 54, 67]. For example, HCI researchers have been addressing challenges relating to engagement with online therapy interventions that aim to promote psychological wellbeing [54], with research suggesting that the implementation of specific design strategies can enhance user engagement and reduce attrition rates with online therapy interventions. These design strategies include: (1) increasing interaction opportunities; (2) providing immediate feedback; (3) increasing personalization; (4) offering remote therapist support; (5) building a social community; and (6) employing ‘relational agents to engage the user in an empathic dialogue’. Most of these design strategies can be observed in VRChat, where users have an infinite number of potential interactions (worlds, features within worlds and users); they talk in real-time therefore feedback is immediate; the more a user engages the more friends they make; and there is a community of nearly four million users that offer constant and immediate support. It is therefore not surprising that many participants in this study reported using VRChat to improve their mental wellbeing and experience personal growth. This study provides qualitative evidence that VRChat can and is being used as a mental wellbeing tool, with users not only benefitting from social interactions and gameplay, but also experiencing the benefits of having open and honest conversations with others.

This could have substantial benefit for men's mental health and wellbeing specifically, given that males currently dominate VRChat and have historically struggled to express their emotions and seek mental health support [36]. Support seeking is often avoided due to stigma, the fear of judgement, not having adequate social connections or being unable to access help [17]. Social VR overcomes many of these factors by offering a non-traditional and subtle way of engaging men with mental wellbeing support in an accessible way that can be integrated into everyday life. The anonymity, afforded by avatars, allows users to speak without fear of ‘real life’ repercussions or judgement. This can also provide the confidence that many males lack in real life to reflect on and discuss their feelings. Participants in this study were majority males (average age = 28) and they discussed how the anonymity and safety provided by VRChat allowed them to open up about their personal lives. This led to experiencing the benefits of talking about their feelings and being supported by others. Many mental health campaigns and digital apps have tried, and failed, at achieving this [44]. Social VR could therefore act as a platform for letting men safely and anonymously discuss their feelings and experience the positive impact this has on their mental wellbeing. The findings in this paper therefore contribute to the research on gaming for mental health by presenting VRChat as another gaming platform that has potential to engage men in wellbeing enhancing activity.