An Overview of Sustainable Desalination with Freezing Crystallization: Current Development, Future Challenges, and Prospects
<p>Classification of desalination technologies [<a href="#B6-sustainability-16-10138" class="html-bibr">6</a>].</p> "> Figure 2
<p>Phase equilibrium diagram of NaCl–H<sub>2</sub>O binary solution.</p> "> Figure 3
<p>Illustration of freeze separation: (<b>a</b>) block flow diagram of basic freeze separation process; (<b>b</b>) experimental method for methylene blue dye [<a href="#B18-sustainability-16-10138" class="html-bibr">18</a>].</p> "> Figure 4
<p>(<b>a</b>) Illustration of direct FD process chart; (<b>b</b>) schematic diagram of crystallizer [<a href="#B26-sustainability-16-10138" class="html-bibr">26</a>].</p> "> Figure 5
<p>Illustration of indirect FD process.</p> "> Figure 6
<p>(<b>a</b>) Suspension freeze crystallization; (<b>b</b>) progressive freeze crystallization [<a href="#B38-sustainability-16-10138" class="html-bibr">38</a>].</p> "> Figure 7
<p>Freshwater separation process by the hydrate method.</p> "> Figure 8
<p>Efficient implementation process of freshwater separation technology by hydrate method [<a href="#B59-sustainability-16-10138" class="html-bibr">59</a>].</p> "> Figure 9
<p>Illustration of eutectic FD process.</p> "> Figure 10
<p>The characteristic analysis diagram of the desalination methods.</p> "> Figure 11
<p>The laboratory equipment for progressive freeze desalination [<a href="#B81-sustainability-16-10138" class="html-bibr">81</a>].</p> "> Figure 12
<p>The influence of experimental parameters on desalination rate: (<b>a</b>) the influence of freezing melting cycles on desalination rate and freshwater loss; (<b>b</b>) melting time parameter; (<b>c</b>) the influence of freezing melting cycles on desalination rate and freshwater loss; (<b>d</b>) the influence of freezing melting cycles on desalination rate and freshwater loss [<a href="#B86-sustainability-16-10138" class="html-bibr">86</a>].</p> "> Figure 13
<p>Process schematic and effect comparison diagram of different post-processing methods: (<b>a</b>) gravity and centrifugation [<a href="#B19-sustainability-16-10138" class="html-bibr">19</a>]; (<b>b</b>) ice pressing [<a href="#B89-sustainability-16-10138" class="html-bibr">89</a>]; (<b>c</b>) watering [<a href="#B88-sustainability-16-10138" class="html-bibr">88</a>].</p> "> Figure 13 Cont.
<p>Process schematic and effect comparison diagram of different post-processing methods: (<b>a</b>) gravity and centrifugation [<a href="#B19-sustainability-16-10138" class="html-bibr">19</a>]; (<b>b</b>) ice pressing [<a href="#B89-sustainability-16-10138" class="html-bibr">89</a>]; (<b>c</b>) watering [<a href="#B88-sustainability-16-10138" class="html-bibr">88</a>].</p> "> Figure 14
<p>Diagram of experimental system: (<b>a</b>) Experiment setup; (<b>b</b>) Main equipment; (<b>c</b>) Crystal unit, 1, channel top (glass); 2, seawater; 3, copper base; 4, helium inlet/outlet; 5, anti-fog shell; 6, seawater inlet; 7, crystal observation unit; 8, seawater outlet [<a href="#B91-sustainability-16-10138" class="html-bibr">91</a>].</p> "> Figure 15
<p>Schematic and pictures of absorption freeze crystallization experimental system. A: Sandwich crystallizer, A1: transparent glass (front), A2: stainless steel mesh plate, A3: transparent glass (back), B: adsorbent layer between A2 and A3, B1: cation exchange resin, B2: anion exchange resin, B3: seawater [<a href="#B92-sustainability-16-10138" class="html-bibr">92</a>].</p> "> Figure 16
<p>Design of an experimental platform for seawater crystallization under an external magnetic field [<a href="#B94-sustainability-16-10138" class="html-bibr">94</a>].</p> "> Figure 17
<p>Schematic diagram illustrating the steps for FMCD (<b>a</b>) and FMGCD process (<b>b</b>) [<a href="#B95-sustainability-16-10138" class="html-bibr">95</a>].</p> "> Figure 18
<p>Temperature (<b>left</b>), liquid phase fraction (<b>middle</b>), and salt water mass fraction (<b>right</b>) contours for freezing temperatures of 265 K, 257.15 K, 245 K, 235 K, and 225 K [<a href="#B103-sustainability-16-10138" class="html-bibr">103</a>].</p> "> Figure 19
<p>Contours of liquid fraction (<b>left</b>) and salt mass fraction (<b>right</b>) at a section of the FD system running under different freezing temperatures [<a href="#B104-sustainability-16-10138" class="html-bibr">104</a>].</p> "> Figure 20
<p>CFD simulation result of a 5 μL brine droplet during the equilibrium phase between liquid and ice at a cooling temperature of −15 °C: (<b>a</b>) temperature variation; (<b>b</b>) brine mass fraction changes; (<b>c</b>) liquid fraction alterations [<a href="#B105-sustainability-16-10138" class="html-bibr">105</a>].</p> "> Figure 20 Cont.
<p>CFD simulation result of a 5 μL brine droplet during the equilibrium phase between liquid and ice at a cooling temperature of −15 °C: (<b>a</b>) temperature variation; (<b>b</b>) brine mass fraction changes; (<b>c</b>) liquid fraction alterations [<a href="#B105-sustainability-16-10138" class="html-bibr">105</a>].</p> "> Figure 21
<p>Concentration profile for 35 g/L vs. 70 g/L initially concentrated droplets along the vertical distance.</p> "> Figure 22
<p>Results of directional crystallization of multiple crystal nuclei on horizontal wall: (<b>a</b>) phase-field results; (<b>b</b>) temperature field results; (<b>c</b>) concentration field results; (<b>d</b>) dendrite tip growth rate and tip radius [<a href="#B37-sustainability-16-10138" class="html-bibr">37</a>].</p> "> Figure 22 Cont.
<p>Results of directional crystallization of multiple crystal nuclei on horizontal wall: (<b>a</b>) phase-field results; (<b>b</b>) temperature field results; (<b>c</b>) concentration field results; (<b>d</b>) dendrite tip growth rate and tip radius [<a href="#B37-sustainability-16-10138" class="html-bibr">37</a>].</p> "> Figure 23
<p>Comparison of experimental and simulation results of directional competitive growth of ice crystals [<a href="#B91-sustainability-16-10138" class="html-bibr">91</a>].</p> "> Figure 24
<p>Concentration field of ice crystal growth in channels at different times:(<b>a</b>) 1000Δt; (<b>b</b>) 2000Δt; (<b>c</b>) 3000Δt; (<b>d</b>) 4000Δt; (<b>e</b>) 5000Δt; (<b>f</b>) 6000Δt; (<b>g</b>) 7000Δt; (<b>h</b>) 8000Δt; (<b>i</b>) 9000Δt; (<b>j</b>) 10,000Δt [<a href="#B109-sustainability-16-10138" class="html-bibr">109</a>].</p> "> Figure 25
<p>Distribution of each field under different magnetic field strengths [<a href="#B93-sustainability-16-10138" class="html-bibr">93</a>].</p> "> Figure 26
<p>Snapshots of the molecular dynamics simulations for growth of ice in NaCl solutions at 245 K. Na<sup>+</sup>, and Cl<sup>−</sup> are represented by blue and cyan spheres, respectively. Only the oxygen atoms of water molecules are depicted by red spheres, shown in both the ice and solution [<a href="#B114-sustainability-16-10138" class="html-bibr">114</a>].</p> "> Figure 27
<p>Molecular dynamics simulation of the microscopic mechanism underlying ion repulsion during the freezing of sodium chloride aqueous solution [<a href="#B116-sustainability-16-10138" class="html-bibr">116</a>].</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Thermal methods, which mainly include multi-stage flash distillation (MSF), multi-effect distillation (MED), membrane distillation (MD), freeze desalination (FD), and hydrate desalination (HFD).
- Membrane methods, which mainly include reverse osmosis (RO), electrodialysis (ED), and nanofiltration (NF).
2. Principles and Main Types of Seawater Freezing Desalination
2.1. Direct FD
Reference | Methodology | Performance |
---|---|---|
M. Landau, A. Martindale [20] | Using butane as the refrigerant, the experiment tested the freezing performance of a stirred tank crystallizer, a segmented crystallizer, and a drainage tube crystallizer | Increasing the stirring rate and saline retention time improved the ice quality and reduced salt content, indicating that turbulence positively affects the ice crystal growth process. |
Xie, zhang, liu, lv [32] | The jacketed structure, bottom 45-degree inclined nozzle arrangement, and air flotation technology were used to optimize the direct contact heat transfer process between the refrigerant and seawater. | At an initial refrigerant temperature of −60 °C and an ice mass fraction of 0.23–0.34, the ice maker achieved a volumetric heat transfer coefficient reduction from 92.5 to 81.9 kW/m3 · °C, achieving the optimal balance for the seawater freezing desalination process and efficient utilization of LNG cold energy. |
Liu, ming, wu, richter, fang [33] | A spray freezing desalination system based on a natural ventilation tower was developed, utilizing large-area heat and mass transfer between cold air and sprayed water droplets to improve freezing efficiency. | Under an ambient temperature of −26 °C and with 2 mm water droplets, the system could produce 27.7 kg of freshwater per second. |
Jiang, cao, fei, zhao [34] | Two wastewater treatment devices based on freeze separation were developed using an air-cooling device and a direct-contact cooling device. | When the solution concentration was 0.5 g/L, both freezing methods achieved over 90% removal of inorganic salts, with the copper contact cooling device showing the best performance in energy efficiency. |
Mehdi, Amirsaman, Hossein [35] | A seawater freezing desalination system that directly utilizes LNG cold energy was developed, and a multi-objective optimization study was conducted to find the best combination of design variables to achieve maximum ice mass and minimum salinity. | The optimal LNG temperature was −47.5 °C, and under a Reynolds number below 16,000, the system could meet potable water standards after a three-stage freezing process. |
2.2. Indirect FD
Reference | Methodology | Performance |
---|---|---|
Osato, Liu, Shirai, Shigeru [38] | This paper designs a tubular ice system that uses a large cooling surface to promote the formation of single-crystal ice, simplifying the separation process of ice crystals from the mother liquor. | The results show that higher circulation rates and slower ice advancement speeds can significantly reduce the solute distribution coefficient and improve ice purity. |
Yahui, Yudong, Jinyan, Xiao [47] | Batch experiments were conducted to study the effects of different freezing temperatures, initial concentrations, freezing rates, and total dissolved solids (TDS) on fluoride removal efficiency. | The results showed that the optimal temperature range is between −15 °C and −20 °C. In deionized water, the fluoride removal rate ranged between 75% and 85%. |
Thouaïba, Claudia, Emilie, Denis [48] | The solid-liquid phase diagram of the water/acetone system was determined using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and the synthetic method. | The results indicated that the lowest impurity concentration was 3.92 g/L, requiring further Post-treatment steps to reduce the impurity content. |
Jiang, cao, fei, zhao [34] | Two wastewater treatment devices based on freeze separation were developed using an air-cooling device and a direct-contact cooling device. | When the solution concentration was 0.5 g/L, both freezing methods achieved over 90% removal of inorganic salts, with the copper contact cooling device showing the best performance in energy efficiency. |
Reza Kaviani, Hamidreza Shabgard, Aly Elhefny, Jie Cai, Ramkumar Parthasarathy [49] | A novel FD system utilizing an intermediate cooling liquid (ICL) is fabricated and used to desalinate brines. | At constant feed brine salinity, as the cooling temperature decreased the recovery ratio increased. At a fixed cooling temperature, the ice generation was greater for feed brine with smaller salinities. |
2.3. Hydrate FD
Reference | Methodology | Performance |
---|---|---|
Hai, seong, changsu [60] | Using HFC134a as the hydrate-forming gas, a continuous hydrate formation-pressing-dissolution process was conducted, and Raman spectroscopy was used to analyze the hydrate structure. | In a single-stage hydrate process, 89% of dissolved minerals from seawater, approximately 80% of ions and total dissolved solids from hypersaline brine, and about 81% of pollutants from wastewater (Coca-Cola sample) were successfully removed. |
Ponnivalavan, Abhishek, Zheng [61] | The cold energy produced during the regasification of liquefied natural gas (LNG) was used for hydrate formation and desalination. | Under a bed thickness of 1.9 cm and a hydrate formation time of 30 min, a water recovery rate of 34.85 ± 0.35% and a salt rejection rate of 87.5 ± 1.84% were achieved. |
Park, Hong, Lee, Kang [62] | A device was designed for the continuous production and compression of CO2 hydrate particles, and Raman spectroscopy was used to analyze the hydrate structure. | The single-stage hydrate process effectively removed 72–80% of dissolved minerals, with the removal order being K+ > Na+ > Mg2+ > B3+ > Ca2+. |
Han, rhee, kang [63] | This study explored the seawater desalination process using cyclopentane hydrate formation and washing treatment technology. | Experimental results showed that approximately 63% of salt ions could be removed through single-stage hydrate formation and filtration, while subsequent washing treatment could further improve salt removal efficiency, reaching up to 90%. |
2.4. Eutectic FD
Reference | Methodology | Performance |
---|---|---|
A.E. Lewis, J. Nathoo, K. Thomsen, H.J. Kramer [69] | A eutectic freeze crystallization process was studied and designed for treating multi-component wastewater streams. Thermodynamic modeling and phase diagram tools were used to simulate the phase behavior of complex brine systems. | The first crystallization product was Na2SO4·10H2O (3.5 °C), followed by ice (−5.25 °C), and finally NaCl·2H2O (−23.25 °C). |
W. N. A. Mazli, S. Samsuri, N. A. Amran [70] | The article studied Progressive Freeze Concentration (PFC) and Eutectic Freeze Crystallization (EFC) technologies. Experiments were conducted using different stirring speeds, cooling times, and coolant temperatures to assess the efficiency of both methods. | The study found that in the PFC method, the optimal separation efficiency was achieved at a stirring speed of 300 RPM, a cooling time of 35 min, and a coolant temperature of −12 °C. |
Debbie, Jemitias, Chivavava, Alison [71] | The occurrence of ice fouling development during the Eutectic Freeze Crystallization (EFC) process, where brine flows at low scraper velocities and experiences high supersaturation, was investigated. The impacts of the driving force for heat transfer, scraper rotation speed, and brine composition on the ice fouling formation time were analyzed. | The experiments showed that ice fouling formation is closely related to scraper speed, heat transfer driving force, and the type and concentration of impurities in the brine. |
Mehdi, Roman, Jemitias, Joonas, Marjatta [72] | The research investigated the formation of ice crystals under conditions of minimal agitation and elevated levels of supersaturation within a jacketed, agitated eutectic freeze crystallization unit. | At low temperatures, ice fouling time is inversely proportional to temperature; at higher temperatures, stirring intensity significantly affects ice fouling time. |
2.5. Vacuum FD
Reference | Methodology | Performance |
---|---|---|
Attilio Antonelli [75] | A seawater desalination process based on LNG cold energy was proposed for the first time. | The study results showed that each ton of LNG can produce 3.2 tons of freshwater, and an LNG terminal processing 500 million cubic meters of natural gas per year can produce approximately 10,000 tons of freshwater daily. |
Cao, Lu, Lin, Gu [76] | The FD process using LNG cold energy was developed and simulated using gPROMS software. | One kilogram of LNG cold energy is roughly equivalent to extracting 2 kg of freshwater. |
Lin, Huang, Gu [77] | The system used R410A as a secondary refrigerant to cool seawater through heat exchange with LNG, utilizing a flake ice mechanism to produce ice. | The results showed that the system could achieve the designed freshwater production rate of 150 L/h, with a cold energy conversion efficiency of 2 kg freshwater/1 kg LNG. The system’s single-stage freezing desalination rate was about 50%, indicating that multiple freezing cycles are needed to produce potable water. |
Seong, Sang, Amadeu, Kun, Ju [78] | LNG cold energy was used as a cryogenic source for desalinating high-salinity water through gas hydrate formation. | HFC-134a achieved the fastest hydrate formation rate at a pressure of only 0.16 MPa. |
Sang, Kyungtae [79] | A process design and economic analysis were conducted for gas hydrate-based combined power generation and seawater desalination using LNG cold energy. | he combined power generation cycle produced both pure water and electricity, with an energy consumption of −5.202 kWh, a simplified desalination cycle energy consumption of 0.566 kWh/ton of water, and a water production cost of $0.544. |
2.6. Summary
3. Progress in Experimental Study on Freeze Desalination
- Ice crystal size;
- Salt concentration in the produced ice;
- Freshwater yield;
- Growth rate of the ice crystal tip;
4. Numerical Simulation Study on Freeze Desalination
4.1. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
4.2. The Phase-Field Method
4.3. Molecular Dynamics (MD)
4.4. Summary
5. Current State of Development of Seawater Freezing Desalination
5.1. Development Advantages
5.1.1. Resource Consumption
5.1.2. Environmental Protection
5.1.3. Cost Advantage
5.2. Development Challenges
5.2.1. Freshwater Quality
5.2.2. Crystallization Control
5.2.3. Investment Costs
5.3. Integrated Development of Multiple Technologies
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
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Zhao, S.; Zhu, R.; Song, J.; Yuan, H. An Overview of Sustainable Desalination with Freezing Crystallization: Current Development, Future Challenges, and Prospects. Sustainability 2024, 16, 10138. https://doi.org/10.3390/su162210138
Zhao S, Zhu R, Song J, Yuan H. An Overview of Sustainable Desalination with Freezing Crystallization: Current Development, Future Challenges, and Prospects. Sustainability. 2024; 16(22):10138. https://doi.org/10.3390/su162210138
Chicago/Turabian StyleZhao, Senyao, Rongjie Zhu, Jiatong Song, and Han Yuan. 2024. "An Overview of Sustainable Desalination with Freezing Crystallization: Current Development, Future Challenges, and Prospects" Sustainability 16, no. 22: 10138. https://doi.org/10.3390/su162210138
APA StyleZhao, S., Zhu, R., Song, J., & Yuan, H. (2024). An Overview of Sustainable Desalination with Freezing Crystallization: Current Development, Future Challenges, and Prospects. Sustainability, 16(22), 10138. https://doi.org/10.3390/su162210138