Abstract
This article discusses how recent data have altered the way we understand how dying tumour cells, particularly those killed by chemotherapy, engage with antitumour immune responses. These data have significant implications for the development of new protocols combining chemotherapy with immunotherapy, indicating an exciting potential for therapeutic synergy with general applicability to many cancer types.
This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution
Access options
Subscribe to this journal
Receive 12 print issues and online access
£139.00 per year
only £11.58 per issue
Buy this article
- Purchase on SpringerLink
- Instant access to full article PDF
Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Raff, M. C. Social controls on cell survival and cell death. Nature 356, 397–400 (1992).
Degterev, A., Boyce, M. & Yuan, J. A decade of caspases. Oncogene 22, 8543–8567 (2003).
Savill, J. & Fadok, V. Corpse clearance defines the meaning of cell death. Nature 407, 784–788 (2000).
Kerr, J. F., Wyllie, A. H. & Currie, A. R. Apoptosis: a basic biological phenomenon with wide-ranging implications in tissue kinetics. Br. J. Cancer 26, 239–257 (1972).
Restifo, N. P. Building better vaccines: how apoptotic cell death can induce inflammation and activate innate and adaptive immunity. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 12, 597–603 (2000).
Sotomayor, E. M. et al. Cross-presentation of tumor antigens by bone marrow-derived antigen-presenting cells is the dominant mechanism in the induction of T-cell tolerance during B-cell lymphoma progression. Blood 98, 1070–1077 (2001).
Cuenca, A. et al. Extra-lymphatic solid tumor growth is not immunologically ignored and results in early induction of antigen-specific T-cell anergy: dominant role of cross-tolerance to tumor antigens. Cancer Res. 63, 9007–9015 (2003).
Ozoren, N. & El-Deiry, W. S. Cell surface Death Receptor signaling in normal and cancer cells. Semin. Cancer Biol. 13, 135–147 (2003).
Mesner, P. W. Jr, Budihardjo, II & Kaufmann, S. H. Chemotherapy-induced apoptosis. Adv. Pharmacol. 41, 461–499 (1997).
Kaufmann, S. H. & Earnshaw, W. C. Induction of apoptosis by cancer chemotherapy. Exp. Cell Res. 256, 42–49 (2000).
Li, X. et al. Apoptotic cell death during treatment of leukemias. Leuk. Lymphoma 13 (Suppl. 1), 65–70 (1994).
Kim, R., Nishimoto, N., Inoue, H., Yoshida, K. & Toge, T. An analysis of the therapeutic efficacy of protracted infusion of low-dose 5-fluorouracil and cisplatin in advanced gastric cancer. J. Infect. Chemother. 6, 222–228 (2000).
Cassinelli, G. et al. A role for loss of p53 function in sensitivity of ovarian carcinoma cells to taxanes. Int. J. Cancer 92, 738–747 (2001).
Salomons, G. S. et al. Bcl-2 family members in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia: relationships with features at presentation, in vitro and in vivo drug response and long-term clinical outcome. Leukemia 13, 1574–1580 (1999).
Okada, H. & Mak, T. W. Pathways of apoptotic and non-apoptotic death in tumour cells. Nature Rev. Cancer 4, 592–603 (2004).
Edinger, A. L. & Thompson, C. B. Death by design: apoptosis, necrosis and autophagy. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 16, 663–669 (2004).
Levine, B. & Klionsky, D. J. Development by self-digestion: molecular mechanisms and biological functions of autophagy. Dev. Cell 6, 463–477 (2004).
Kanzawa, T. et al. Role of autophagy in temozolomide-induced cytotoxicity for malignant glioma cells. Cell Death Differ. 11, 448–457 (2004).
Pagani, E. et al. DNA repair enzymes and cytotoxic effects of temozolomide: comparative studies between tumor cells and normal cells of the immune system. J. Chemother. 15, 173–183 (2003).
De Vleeschouwer, S. et al. Transient local response and persistent tumor control in a child with recurrent malignant glioma: treatment with combination therapy including dendritic cell therapy. Case report. J. Neurosurg. Spine 100, 492–497 (2004).
Jordan, M. A. et al. Mitotic block induced in HeLa cells by low concentrations of paclitaxel (Taxol) results in abnormal mitotic exit and apoptotic cell death. Cancer Res. 56, 816–825 (1996).
Russell, P. & Nurse, P. cdc25+ functions as an inducer in the mitotic control of fission yeast. Cell 45, 145–153 (1986).
Eralp, Y. et al. Doxorubicin and paclitaxel enhance the antitumor efficacy of vaccines directed against HER 2/neu in a murine mammary carcinoma model. Breast Cancer Res. 6, R275–R283 (2004).
Bonnotte, B. et al. Bcl-2-mediated inhibition of apoptosis prevents immunogenicity and restores tumorigenicity of spontaneously regressive tumors. J. Immunol. 161, 1433–1438 (1998).
Leitner, W. W. et al. Apoptosis is essential for the increased efficacy of alphaviral replicase-based DNA vaccines. Vaccine 22, 1537–1544 (2004).
Sasaki, S., Amara, R. R., Oran, A. E., Smith, J. M. & Robinson, H. L. Apoptosis-mediated enhancement of DNA-raised immune responses by mutant caspases. Nature Biotechnol. 19, 543–547 (2001).
Chattergoon, M. A. et al. Targeted antigen delivery to antigen-presenting cells including dendritic cells by engineered Fas-mediated apoptosis. Nature Biotechnol. 18, 974–979 (2000).
Steinman, R. M., Turley, S., Mellman, I. & Inaba, K. The induction of tolerance by dendritic cells that have captured apoptotic cells. J. Exp. Med. 191, 411–416 (2000).
Kim, S., Elkon, K. B. & Ma, X. Transcriptional suppression of interleukin-12 gene expression following phagocytosis of apoptotic cells. Immunity 21, 643–653 (2004).
Rovere, P. et al. Delayed clearance of apoptotic lymphoma cells allows cross-presentation of intracellular antigens by mature dendritic cells. J. Leukoc. Biol. 66, 345–349 (1999).
Feng, H., Zeng, Y., Graner, M. W. & Katsanis, E. Stressed apoptotic tumor cells stimulate dendritic cells and induce specific cytotoxic T cells. Blood 100, 4108–4115 (2002).
Golpon, H. A. et al. Life after corpse engulfment: phagocytosis of apoptotic cells leads to VEGF secretion and cell growth. FASEB J. 18, 1716–1718 (2004).
Shi, Y., Evans, J. E. & Rock, K. L. Molecular identification of a danger signal that alerts the immune system to dying cells. Nature 425, 516–521 (2003).
Sauter, B. et al. Consequences of cell death: exposure to necrotic tumor cells, but not primary tissue cells or apoptotic cells, induces the maturation of immunostimulatory dendritic cells. J. Exp. Med. 191, 423–434 (2000).
Skoberne, M., Beignon, A. S. & Bhardwaj, N. Danger signals: a time and space continuum. Trends Mol. Med. 10, 251–257 (2004).
Robbins, P. in Tumor immunology: molecularly defined antigens and clinical applications (eds Parmiani, G. & Lotze, M.) 11 (Harwood Academic Publishers, London, 2002).
Novellino, L., Castelli, C. & Parmiani, G. A listing of human tumor antigens recognized by T cells: March 2004 update. Cancer Immunol. Immunother. 54, 187–207 (2005).
Kawakami, Y. & Rosenberg, S. A. Human tumor antigens recognized by T-cells. Immunol. Res. 16, 313–339 (1997).
Marzo, A. L., Lake, R. A., Robinson, B. W. S. & Scott, B. T cell receptor transgenic analysis of tumor-specific CD8 and CD4 responses in the eradication of solid tumors. Cancer Res. 59, 1071–1079 (1999).
Stumbles, P. A. et al. Cutting Edge: Tumor-specific CTL are constitutively cross-armed in draining lymph nodes and transiently disseminate to mediate tumor regression following systemic CD40 activation. J. Immunol. 173, 5923–5928 (2004).
Nowak, A. K. et al. Induction of tumor cell apoptosis in vivo increases tumor antigen cross-presentation, cross-priming rather than cross-tolerizing host tumor-specific CD8 T cells. J. Immunol. 170, 4905–4913 (2003).
Nelson, D., Bundell, C. & Robinson, B. In vivo cross-presentation of a soluble protein antigen: kinetics, distribution, and generation of effector CTL recognizing dominant and subdominant epitopes. J. Immunol. 165, 6123–6132 (2000).
Nowak, A. K., Robinson, B. W. & Lake, R. A. Gemcitabine exerts a selective effect on the humoral immune response: implications for combination chemo-immunotherapy. Cancer Res. 62, 2353–2358 (2002).
Polak, L. & Turk, J. L. Reversal of immunological tolerance by cyclophosphamide through inhibition of suppressor cell activity. Nature 249, 654–656 (1974).
Fehervari, Z. & Sakaguchi, S. Development and function of CD25+CD4+ regulatory T cells. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 16, 203–208 (2004).
Ghiringhelli, F. et al. CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells suppress tumor immunity but are sensitive to cyclophosphamide which allows immunotherapy of established tumors to be curative. Eur. J. Immunol. 34, 336–344 (2004).
Heath, W. R. & Carbone, F. R. Cross-presentation in viral immunity and self-tolerance. Nature Rev. Immunol. 1, 126–134 (2001).
Morgan, D. J., Kreuwel, H. T. & Sherman, L. A. Antigen concentration and precursor frequency determine the rate of CD8+ T cell tolerance to peripherally expressed antigens. J. Immunol. 163, 723–727 (1999).
Miller, J. F. & Morahan, G. Peripheral T cell tolerance. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 10, 51–69 (1992).
Nowak, A. K., Robinson, B. W. & Lake, R. A. Synergy between chemotherapy and immunotherapy in the treatment of established murine solid tumors. Cancer Res. 63, 4490–4496 (2003).
Srivastava, P. Interaction of heat shock proteins with peptides and antigen presenting cells: chaperoning of the innate and adaptive immune responses. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 20, 395–425 (2002).
Fadok, V. A., Bratton, D. L., Guthrie, L. & Henson, P. M. Differential effects of apoptotic versus lysed cells on macrophage production of cytokines: role of proteases. J. Immunol. 166, 6847–6854 (2001).
Rad, A. N. et al. The differential influence of allogeneic tumor cell death via DNA damage on dendritic cell maturation and antigen presentation. Cancer Res. 63, 5143–5150 (2003).
Friesen, C., Herr, I., Krammer, P. H. & Debatin, K. M. Involvement of the CD95 (APO-1/FAS) receptor/ligand system in drug-induced apoptosis in leukemia cells. Nature Med. 2, 574–577 (1996).
Bergmann-Leitner, E. S. & Abrams, S. I. Treatment of human colon carcinoma cell lines with anti-neoplastic agents enhances their lytic sensitivity to antigen-specific CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes. Cancer Immunol. Immunother. 50, 445–455 (2001).
Yang, S. & Haluska, F. G. Treatment of melanoma with 5-fluorouracil or dacarbazine in vitro sensitizes cells to antigen-specific CTL lysis through perforin/granzyme- and Fas-mediated pathways. J. Immunol. 172, 4599–4608 (2004).
Kaech, S. M. et al. Selective expression of the interleukin 7 receptor identifies effector CD8 T cells that give rise to long-lived memory cells. Nature Immunol. 4, 1191–1198 (2003).
Wherry, E. J., Barber, D. L., Kaech, S. M., Blattman, J. N. & Ahmed, R. Antigen-independent memory CD8 T cells do not develop during chronic viral infection. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 101, 16004–16009 (2004).
Dudley, M. E. et al. Cancer regression and autoimmunity in patients after clonal repopulation with antitumor lymphocytes. Science 298, 850–854 (2002).
Burnet, F. M. Immunological recognition of self. Science 133, 307–311 (1961).
Mason, D. A very high level of crossreactivity is an essential feature of the T-cell receptor. Immunol. Today 19, 395–404 (1998).
Matzinger, P. Tolerance, danger, and the extended family. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 12, 991–1045 (1994).
Janeway, C. A. Jr. The immune system evolved to discriminate infectious nonself from noninfectious self. Immunol. Today 13, 11–16 (1992).
Medzhitov, R. & Janeway, C. Jr., Innate immune recognition: mechanisms and pathways. Immunol. Rev. 173, 89–97 (2000).
Medzhitov, R. & Janeway, C. A. Jr. Decoding the patterns of self and nonself by the innate immune system. Science 296, 298–300 (2002).
Lyons, A. B. & Parish, C. R. Determination of lymphocyte division by flow cytometry. J. Immunol. Methods 171, 131–137 (1994).
Oehen, S. & Brduscha-Riem, K. Differentiation of naive CTL to effector and memory CTL: correlation of effector function with phenotype and cell division. J. Immunol. 161, 5338–5346 (1998).
Davis, M. M. et al. Ligand recognition by αβ T cell receptors. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 16, 523–544 (1998).
Miyahira, Y. et al. Quantification of antigen specific CD8+ T cells using an ELISPOT assay. J. Immunol. Methods 181, 45–54 (1995).
North, R. J. & Kirstein, D. P. T-cell–mediated concomitant immunity to syngeneic tumors. I. Activated macrophages as the expressors of nonspecific immunity to unrelated tumors and bacterial parasites. J. Exp. Med. 145, 275–292 (1977).
Acknowledgements
We thank the current and former members of the Tumour Immunology Group, but we are particularly grateful to R. van der Most for proof reading the evolving manuscript and consistently thought-provoking debate. We apologize for our failure to fully acknowledge many important contributions to this area. This research was supported by grants from the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia and the Cancer Council of Western Australia. R.L. is supported by the Insurance Commission of Western Australia.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing financial interests.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Lake, R., Robinson, B. Immunotherapy and chemotherapy — a practical partnership. Nat Rev Cancer 5, 397–405 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1038/nrc1613
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nrc1613