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Polymers
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Polysaccharides: Synthesis, Properties and Applications
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Polysaccharides: Synthesis, Properties and Applications

A special issue of Polymers (ISSN 2073-4360). This special issue belongs to the section "Polymer Chemistry".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 January 2025 | Viewed by 5811

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Guantian Li

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 7 Nanhai Road, Qingdao 266071, China
Interests: polysaccharides; starch; structure–property relationships; supramolecular structures; starch modification
Dr. Rongfeng Li

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
Interests: marine functional polysaccharide; glycosaminoglycan; anticoagulant polysaccharide; glycoprotein; polysaccharide biosynthesis and biotransformation; marine drug; functional food
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Kun Gao

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Guest Editor
CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Center for Ocean Mega-Science, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
Interests: chitin; polysaccharide derivatization; carbohydrate chemistry; agrochemicals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

I am pleased to invite you to contribute to the Special Issue entitled “Polysaccharides: Synthesis, Properties and Applications”. This Special Issue aims to showcase the latest advancements and innovations in the field of polysaccharide research, from fundamental understanding to practical applications. The unique properties of polysaccharides, such as biocompatibility and biodegradability, have made them attractive materials for the development of novel functional and smart systems. We welcome original research articles and reviews on various topics, including, but not limited to, the following:

  • Novel synthesis and extraction methods for polysaccharides;
  • Chemical, enzymatic, and physical modifications of polysaccharides;
  • Structure–property relationships of polysaccharides and their derivatives;
  • Polysaccharide-based nanomaterials, hydrogels, and composites;
  • Biomedical applications of polysaccharides, such as drug delivery, tissue engineering, and wound healing;
  • Polysaccharides in food, cosmetics, and personal care products;
  • Polysaccharide-based materials for environmental remediation and water treatment;
  • Advances in characterization techniques for polysaccharides.

Dr. Guantian Li
Dr. Rongfeng Li
Dr. Kun Gao
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Polymers is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

 

Keywords

  • polysaccharides
  • synthesis
  • extraction methods
  • modifications
  • characterizations
  • structure–property relationships
  • applications
  • nanocomposites
  • biomaterials

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Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

13 pages, 3364 KiB  
Article
Synthesis of Amorphous Cellulose Derivatives via Michael Addition to Hydroxyalkyl Acrylates for Thermoplastic Film Applications
by Hiroyuki Nagaishi, Masayasu Totani and Jun-ichi Kadokawa
Polymers 2024, 16(22), 3142; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16223142 - 11 Nov 2024
Viewed by 725
Abstract
The aim of this study is to prepare new cellulose derivatives that show good feasibility and processability. Accordingly, in this study, we demonstrate Michael addition to hydroxyalkyl acrylates, that is, 2-hydroxyethyl and 4-hydroxybutyl acrylates (HEA and HBA, respectively), to synthesize amorphous cellulose derivatives [...] Read more.
The aim of this study is to prepare new cellulose derivatives that show good feasibility and processability. Accordingly, in this study, we demonstrate Michael addition to hydroxyalkyl acrylates, that is, 2-hydroxyethyl and 4-hydroxybutyl acrylates (HEA and HBA, respectively), to synthesize amorphous cellulose derivatives under alkaline conditions. The reactions were carried out in the presence of LiOH in ionic liquid (1-butyl-2,3-dimethylimidazolium chloride)/N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) solvents at room temperature or 50 °C for 1 h. The Fourier transform infrared and 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) measurements of the products supported the progress of Michael addition; however, the degrees of substitution (DS) were not high (0.3–0.6 for HEA and 0.6 for HBA). The powder X-ray diffraction analysis of the products indicated their amorphous nature. The cellulosic Michael adduct from HEA with DS = 0.6 was swollen with high polar organic liquids, such as DMF. In addition to swelling with these liquids, the cellulosic Michael adduct from HBA was soluble in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), leading to its 1H NMR analysis in DMSO-d6. This adduct was found to form a cast film with flexible properties from its DMSO solutions. Furthermore, films containing an ionic liquid, 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride, showed thermoplasticity. The Michael addition approach to hydroxyalkyl acrylates is quite effective to totally reduce crystallinity, leading to good feasibility and processability in cellulosic materials, even with low DS. In addition, the present thermoplastic films will be applied in practical, bio-based, and eco-friendly fields. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polysaccharides: Synthesis, Properties and Applications)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>(<b>a</b>) Preparation of cellulose solution in 1-butyl-2,3-dimethylimidazoium chloride (BDMIMCl)/<span class="html-italic">N</span>,<span class="html-italic">N</span>-dimethylformamide (DMF), (<b>b</b>) Michael addition to 2-hydroxyethyl or 4-hydroxybutyl acrylate (HEA/HBA) in the presence of LiOH in the solution, and (<b>c</b>) acetylation of produced Michael adducts in 1-butyl-3-methylimidazoium chloride (BMIMCl).</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>FTIR spectra of (<b>a</b>) cellulose, (<b>b</b>) cellulosic Michael adduct from HEA (run 1), (<b>c</b>) cellulosic Michael adduct from HBA (run 3), and (<b>d</b>) dried material from alkaline hydrolysate (run 3).</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p><sup>1</sup>H NMR spectrum of hydrolysate of cellulosic Michael adduct from HBA (run 3) in NaOD/D<sub>2</sub>O.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>XRD profiles of (<b>a</b>) cellulose, (<b>b</b>) cellulosic Michael adduct from HEA (run 1), and (<b>c</b>) cellulosic Michael adduct from HBA (run 3).</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Photographs of mixtures of Michael adducts with DMSO and DMF after shaking at room temperature.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p><sup>1</sup>H NMR spectrum of cellulosic Michael adduct from HBA (run 3) in DMSO-<span class="html-italic">d</span><sub>6</sub>.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>(<b>a</b>) <sup>1</sup>H NMR spectrum of acetylated derivative, prepared from cellulosic Michael adduct of run 3 in CDCl<sub>3</sub> and (<b>b</b>) expanded region for acetyl methyl signals.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Preparation of cast films from solutions of cellulosic Michael adduct of run 3 containing 0 and 20 wt.% BMIMCl in DMSO and their bending performance.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Stress-strain curves of cast films from solutions of cellulosic Michael adduct of run 3 containing 0 and 20 wt.% BMIMCl ((<b>a</b>) and (<b>b</b>), respectively) under tensile mode.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>DSC profiles of cast films from solutions of cellulosic Michael adduct of run 3, containing (<b>a</b>) 0, (<b>b</b>) 5, (<b>c</b>) 10, and (<b>d</b>) 20 wt.% BMIMCl.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Melt-pressing experiment of cast films from solutions of cellulosic Michael adduct of run 3, containing 0–20 wt.% BMIMCl for evaluation of thermoplasticity and bending performance after melt pressing.</p> Full article ">
16 pages, 20417 KiB  
Article
Characterization of Mixtures Based on High-Density Polyethylene and Plasticized Starch
by Maria Daniela Stelescu, Ovidiu-Cristian Oprea, Doina Constantinescu, Ludmila Motelica, Anton Ficai, Roxana-Doina Trusca, Maria Sonmez, Dana Florentina Gurau, Mihai Georgescu, Rodica Roxana Constantinescu, Bogdan-Stefan Vasile and Denisa Ficai
Polymers 2024, 16(21), 3051; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16213051 - 30 Oct 2024
Viewed by 879
Abstract
This paper presents the obtaining and characterization of blends based on high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and plasticized starch. In addition to plasticized starch (28.8% w/w), the compositions made also contained other ingredients, such as polyethylene-graft-maleic anhydride as a compatibilizer, ethylene propylene [...] Read more.
This paper presents the obtaining and characterization of blends based on high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and plasticized starch. In addition to plasticized starch (28.8% w/w), the compositions made also contained other ingredients, such as polyethylene-graft-maleic anhydride as a compatibilizer, ethylene propylene terpolymer elastomer, cross-linking agents, and nanoclay. Plasticized starch contains 68.6% w/w potato starch, 29.4% w/w glycerin, and 2% w/w anhydrous citric acid. Blends based on HDPE and plasticized starch were made in a Brabender Plasti-Corder internal mixer at 160 °C, and plates for testing were obtained using the compression method. Thermal analyses indicate an increase in the crystallization degree of the HDPE after the addition of plasticized starch. SEM micrographs indicate that blends are compatibilized, with the plasticized starch being well dispersed as droplets in the HDPE matrix. Samples show high hardness values (62–65° ShD), good tensile strength values (14.88–17.02 N/mm2), and Charpy impact strength values (1.08–2.27 kJ/m2 on notched samples, and 7.96–20.29 kJ/m2 on unnotched samples). After 72 h of water immersion at room temperature, mixtures containing a compatibilizer had a mass variation below 1% and water absorption values below 1.7%. Upon increasing the water immersion temperature to 80 °C, the sample without the compatibilizer showed a mass reduction of −2.23%, indicating the dissolution of the plasticized starch in the water. The samples containing the compatibilizer had a mass variation of max 8.33% and a water absorption of max 5.02%. After toluene immersion for 72 h at room temperature, mass variation was below 8%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polysaccharides: Synthesis, Properties and Applications)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>The SEM micrographs for the cryo-fractured cross-sections of H0–H5 samples, after 48 h treatment with HCl 6 N at 60 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>TG and DSC curves for H0–H5 polymeric blends.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Detail of the TG and DSC curves for H0–H5 samples between 100–180 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>FTIR spectra for H0–H5 samples.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>FTIR maps for H0–H5 samples.</p> Full article ">Figure 5 Cont.
<p>FTIR maps for H0–H5 samples.</p> Full article ">
13 pages, 18808 KiB  
Article
Effects of Ultrasonication in Water and Isopropyl Alcohol on High-Crystalline Cellulose: A Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometry and X-ray Diffraction Investigation
by Răzvan Rotaru, Maria E. Fortună, Elena Ungureanu and Carmen O. Brezuleanu
Polymers 2024, 16(16), 2363; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16162363 - 21 Aug 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 833
Abstract
This paper investigates the effects of ultrasonication on cellulose microparticles in different conditions. FTIR (Fourier transformed infrared spectrometry) and XRD (X-ray diffraction) analyses were used to compare the changes in the cellulose microstructure caused by the following various ultrasonic treatment conditions: time, amplitude [...] Read more.
This paper investigates the effects of ultrasonication on cellulose microparticles in different conditions. FTIR (Fourier transformed infrared spectrometry) and XRD (X-ray diffraction) analyses were used to compare the changes in the cellulose microstructure caused by the following various ultrasonic treatment conditions: time, amplitude of generated ultrasound waves, output power converted into ultrasound, the liquid medium (water and isopropyl alcohol) used for ultrasonication, and the shape of the vessel used for sonication. The cumulative results lead to an increase in the crystalline region directly proportional to the condition of sonication. Also, the total crystallinity index varied from 1.39 (pristine cellulose) to 1.94 for sonication in alcohol to 0.56 for sonication in water. The crystallinity index varied from 67% (cellulose) to 77% for the sample with 15 min of sonication in isopropyl alcohol and 50.4% for the sample with 15 min of sonication in water. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polysaccharides: Synthesis, Properties and Applications)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Infrared spectra for pristine cellulose and ultrasonicated samples.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Deconvoluted FTIR spectra (range 300–3700 cm<sup>−1</sup>) for C, C<sub>5</sub>, and C<sub>10</sub> samples.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Deconvoluted FTIR spectra for C<sub>15</sub>, C<sub>2x5</sub>, and C<sub>F</sub> samples.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Deconvoluted FTIR spectra for C<sub>5H2O</sub>, C<sub>10H2O</sub>, and C<sub>15H2O</sub> samples ultrasonicated in water.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>XRD pattern for pristine cellulose powder and ultrasonicated samples.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Monoclinic and triclinic cellulose system.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Deconvoluted X-ray diffractograms for C, C<sub>5</sub>, and C<sub>10</sub>.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Deconvoluted X-ray diffractograms for C<sub>15</sub>, C<sub>2x5</sub>, and C<sub>F</sub>.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Deconvoluted X-ray diffractograms for C<sub>5H2O</sub>, C<sub>10H2O</sub>, and C<sub>15H2O</sub>.</p> Full article ">
17 pages, 4515 KiB  
Article
Structural Characterization and Biological Properties Analysis of Exopolysaccharides Produced by Weisella cibaria HDL-4
by Bosen Zhou, Changli Wang, Yi Yang, Wenna Yu, Xiaoyun Bin, Gang Song and Renpeng Du
Polymers 2024, 16(16), 2314; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16162314 - 15 Aug 2024
Viewed by 1164
Abstract
An exopolysaccharide (EPS)-producing strain, identified as Weissella cibaria HDL-4, was isolated from litchi. After separation and purification, the structure and properties of HDL-4 EPS were characterized. The molecular weight of HDL-4 EPS was determined to be 1.9 × 10⁶ Da, with glucose as [...] Read more.
An exopolysaccharide (EPS)-producing strain, identified as Weissella cibaria HDL-4, was isolated from litchi. After separation and purification, the structure and properties of HDL-4 EPS were characterized. The molecular weight of HDL-4 EPS was determined to be 1.9 × 10⁶ Da, with glucose as its monosaccharide component. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analyses indicated that HDL-4 EPS was a D-glucan with α-(1→6) and α-(1→4) glycosidic bonds. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis revealed that HDL-4 EPS was amorphous. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) and atomic force microscope (AFM) observations showed that HDL-4 EPS possesses pores, irregular protrusions, and a smooth layered structure. Additionally, HDL-4 EPS demonstrated significant thermal stability, remaining stable below 288 °C. It exhibited a strong metal ion adsorption activity, emulsification activity, antioxidant activity, and water-retaining property. Therefore, HDL-4 EPS can be extensively utilized in the food and pharmaceutical industries as an additive and prebiotic. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polysaccharides: Synthesis, Properties and Applications)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>NJ tree representing the phylogenetic relationship based on 16 s rDNA gene sequences. (The bold indicated the identified strain.)</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>UV-Vis spectrum (<b>A</b>), GC chromatogram (<b>B</b>), and GPC chromatogram (<b>C</b>) of the HDL-4 EPS.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>FT−IR spectrum (<b>A</b>) and XRD spectra (<b>B</b>) of the HDL-4 EPS.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p><b><sup>1</sup></b>H (<b>A</b>), <sup>13</sup>C (<b>B</b>), COSY (<b>C</b>), and HSQC (<b>D</b>) NMR spectrum of HDL-4 EPS.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>The predicted structural formula of HDL-4 EPS.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>SEM images of HDL-4 EPS at 350× (<b>A</b>), 1000× (<b>B</b>), and 2000× (<b>C</b>) magnification.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>AFM images of HDL-4 EPS: planar view (<b>A</b>) and cubic view (<b>B</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Water contact angle analysis of HDL-4 EPS in MRS at 15 s (<b>A</b>) and MRS +5% sucrose at 15 s (<b>B</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>(<b>A</b>) Metal adsorption activity. (<b>B</b>,<b>C</b>) Rheological properties: (<b>B</b>) different concentrations of EPS and (<b>C</b>) different pH values of HDL-4 EPS.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>The scavenging activity of (<b>A</b>) DPPH radicals and (<b>B</b>) ABTS radicals of HDL-4 EPS with Vc as the positive control and the proliferation effect of HDL-4 EPS and commercial prebiotics (inulin and glucose) on probiotics (<span class="html-italic">L. plantarum</span> (<b>C</b>) and <span class="html-italic">S. thermophilus</span> (<b>D</b>)). The asterisks denote a significant difference in the probiotic proliferation of commercial prebiotics and HDL-4 EPS (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05).</p> Full article ">

Review

Jump to: Research

44 pages, 8948 KiB  
Review
Advancements in Gellan Gum-Based Films and Coatings for Active and Intelligent Packaging
by Hang Li, Kun Gao, Huan Guo, Rongfeng Li and Guantian Li
Polymers 2024, 16(17), 2402; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16172402 - 24 Aug 2024
Viewed by 1443
Abstract
Gellan gum (GG) is a natural polysaccharide with a wide range of industrial applications. This review aims to investigate the potential of GG-based films and coatings to act as environmentally friendly substitutes for traditional petrochemical plastics in food packaging. GG-based films and coatings [...] Read more.
Gellan gum (GG) is a natural polysaccharide with a wide range of industrial applications. This review aims to investigate the potential of GG-based films and coatings to act as environmentally friendly substitutes for traditional petrochemical plastics in food packaging. GG-based films and coatings exhibit versatile properties that can be tailored through the incorporation of various substances, such as plant extracts, microorganisms, and nanoparticles. These functional additives enhance properties like the light barrier, antioxidant activity, and antimicrobial capabilities, all of which are essential for extending the shelf-life of perishable food items. The ability to control the release of active compounds, along with the adaptability of GG-based films and coatings to different food products, highlights their effectiveness in preserving quality and inhibiting microbial growth. Furthermore, GG-based composites that incorporate natural pigments can serve as visual indicators for monitoring food freshness. Overall, GG-based composites present a promising avenue for the development of sustainable and innovative food packaging solutions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polysaccharides: Synthesis, Properties and Applications)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

Graphical abstract
Full article ">Figure 1
<p>Structure of gellan gum [<a href="#B15-polymers-16-02402" class="html-bibr">15</a>]. (<b>a</b>) High- and low-acyl gellan gum. (<b>b</b>) Coil-to-helix and sol-gel transition of gellan gum. Reprinted with permission from Elsevier.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Appearance of gellan gum-based films. (<b>a</b>) Gellan gum film containing titanium dioxide nanoparticles [<a href="#B35-polymers-16-02402" class="html-bibr">35</a>]. (<b>b</b>) Gellan gum/cellulose/chitosan composite film [<a href="#B32-polymers-16-02402" class="html-bibr">32</a>]. (<b>c</b>) Gellan/gelatin film containing red radish anthocyanins [<a href="#B44-polymers-16-02402" class="html-bibr">44</a>]. (<b>d</b>) Gellan gum film incorporating red cabbage anthocyanins [<a href="#B43-polymers-16-02402" class="html-bibr">43</a>]. (<b>a</b>) was used under a CC-BY 4.0 license. (<b>b</b>,<b>c</b>) were reprinted with permission from the American Chemical Society. (<b>d</b>) was reprinted with permission from Elsevier.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Bibliometric network map based on the co-occurrence of terms in recent studies (2015–2024) on gellan gum-based packaging materials.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Methods to prepare gellan gum-based films and coatings. (<b>a</b>) Preparation of film-forming solution. (<b>b</b>) Casting method to prepare film. (<b>c</b>) Methods to deposit coating onto the food surface.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Contact angle of gellan gum-based composites. (<b>a</b>) Gellan gum/soy protein composites with <span class="html-italic">Clitoria ternatea</span> flower extracts [<a href="#B73-polymers-16-02402" class="html-bibr">73</a>]. (<b>b</b>) Gellan gum/konjac glucomannan composites with gallic acids [<a href="#B37-polymers-16-02402" class="html-bibr">37</a>]. Both figures were reprinted with permission from Elsevier.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Optical properties of gellan gum-based composites. (<b>a</b>) Opacity of gellan gum composites with roselle anthocyanin and nisin [<a href="#B67-polymers-16-02402" class="html-bibr">67</a>]. (<b>b</b>) Gellan gum/chitosan composites containing thyme essential oils [<a href="#B58-polymers-16-02402" class="html-bibr">58</a>]. (<b>c</b>) Gellan gum/cellulose composites containing titanium oxide and copper oxide nanoparticles [<a href="#B31-polymers-16-02402" class="html-bibr">31</a>]. (<b>d</b>) Gellan gum/polyvinyl alcohol single-layer and triple-layer composites containing <span class="html-italic">Alhagi sparsifolia</span> flower extract [<a href="#B74-polymers-16-02402" class="html-bibr">74</a>]. (<b>a</b>–<b>c</b>) were reprinted with permission from Elsevier. (<b>d</b>) was reprinted under a CC-BY 4.0 license.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Degradability of gellan-based composites. (<b>a</b>) Degradation of gellan gum/cellulose/chitosan composites [<a href="#B32-polymers-16-02402" class="html-bibr">32</a>]. Reprinted with permission from American Chemical Society. (<b>b</b>) Degradation of gellan gum films containing cranberry extract and <span class="html-italic">Lactococcus lactis</span> [<a href="#B30-polymers-16-02402" class="html-bibr">30</a>]. Reprinted with permission from Elsevier.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Preservation of fruits and vegetables by gellan gum-based packaging materials. (<b>a</b>) Mangos coated with gellan gum/chitosan composites enriched with mustard essential oil [<a href="#B38-polymers-16-02402" class="html-bibr">38</a>]. (<b>b</b>) Fresh-cut peppers wrapped in gellan gum/cellulose films containing titanium oxide and copper oxide nanoparticles [<a href="#B31-polymers-16-02402" class="html-bibr">31</a>]. Both figures were reprinted with permission from Elsevier.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Preservation of starch-based food products using gellan gum-based packaging materials. (<b>a</b>) Bread, protected with gellan/cellulose, that contains <span class="html-italic">Anethum graveolens</span> essential oil stored at room temperature. A, polypropylene bags; B, polypropylene wraps; C, D, E, gellan/cellulose films incorporating 0%, 2%, and 4% of essential oil, respectively [<a href="#B13-polymers-16-02402" class="html-bibr">13</a>]. (<b>b</b>) Chinese steamed bread coated with different gellan gum-based composites. BE, blackberry extract; BM, <span class="html-italic">Bifidobacterium longum</span>; BO, baobab seed oil; GE, gelatin; GG, gellan gum [<a href="#B40-polymers-16-02402" class="html-bibr">40</a>]. Both figures were reprinted with permission from Elsevier.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Minced pork protected with <span class="html-italic">Aronia melanocarpa</span> extract-incorporated gellan gum/pea protein/chitosan bilayer films [<a href="#B72-polymers-16-02402" class="html-bibr">72</a>]. This was reprinted under a CC-BY 4.0 license.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Colorimetric changes of different gellan gum-based indicators. (<b>a</b>) Rose anthocyanin-containing films responding to trimethylamine. AG, alginate; AN, anthocyanin; GG, gellan gum; TMA, trimethylamine [<a href="#B51-polymers-16-02402" class="html-bibr">51</a>]. (<b>b</b>) <span class="html-italic">Clitoria ternatea</span> anthocyanin-containing films responding to pH change [<a href="#B73-polymers-16-02402" class="html-bibr">73</a>]. (<b>c</b>) Methyl red/bromothymol blue-containing films responding to CO<sub>2</sub> change. GG, gellan gum; MB, methyl red/bromothymol blue; SC, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose; TA, tannic acid [<a href="#B53-polymers-16-02402" class="html-bibr">53</a>]. All figures were reprinted with permission from Elsevier.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Freshness monitoring for aquatic food products. (<b>a</b>) Mulberry anthocyanin-containing film responding to spoilage of Chinese mitten crab [<a href="#B96-polymers-16-02402" class="html-bibr">96</a>]. (<b>b</b>) <span class="html-italic">Clitoria ternatea</span> anthocyanin-containing films responding to spoilage of shrimp. CT, <span class="html-italic">Clitoria ternatea</span> anthocyanin; G, gellan gum; HSPI, heat-treated soy protein isolate [<a href="#B73-polymers-16-02402" class="html-bibr">73</a>]. (<b>c</b>) RGB (red, green, blue) hue value changes of rose anthocyanin-containing films responding to increase in total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N) content during carp storage [<a href="#B51-polymers-16-02402" class="html-bibr">51</a>]. All figures were reprinted with permission from Elsevier.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Freshness monitoring for other animal-derived food products. (<b>a</b>) Purple kale anthocyanin-containing film responding to chilled beef spoilage [<a href="#B94-polymers-16-02402" class="html-bibr">94</a>]. (<b>b</b>) RGB (red, green, blue) hue value changes of rose anthocyanin-containing films responding to the increase in total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N) content during chicken storage [<a href="#B51-polymers-16-02402" class="html-bibr">51</a>]. (<b>c</b>) RGB hue value changes in red radish anthocyanin-containing films responding to the increase in acidity and TVB-N during milk storage [<a href="#B44-polymers-16-02402" class="html-bibr">44</a>]. (<b>a</b>,<b>b</b>) were reprinted with permission from Elsevier. (<b>c</b>) was reprinted with permission from the American Chemical Society.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Freshness monitoring for fruits and vegetables. (<b>a</b>) Mushrooms protected with red cabbage extract-containing gellan gum film [<a href="#B43-polymers-16-02402" class="html-bibr">43</a>]. (<b>b</b>) Strawberries protected with methyl red/bromothymol blue-containing films. GG, gellan gum; MB, methyl red/bromothymol blue; SC, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose; TA, tannic acid [<a href="#B53-polymers-16-02402" class="html-bibr">53</a>]. Both figures were reprinted with permission from Elsevier.</p> Full article ">
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