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Inorganics
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Optical and Quantum Electronics: Physics and Materials
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Optical and Quantum Electronics: Physics and Materials

A special issue of Inorganics (ISSN 2304-6740). This special issue belongs to the section "Inorganic Solid-State Chemistry".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 May 2025 | Viewed by 8667

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Sergio Jiménez Sandoval

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN (Cinvestav-IPN), Campus Querétaro, Querétaro, Mexico
Interests: photovoltaic physics and devices; hot-carrier solar cells; photon–electron and electron–phonon interactions; photoconductivity; upconversion; charge transport in semiconductors and at interfaces; 2D materials; semiconductor films; dual doping in semiconductors; micro Raman and photoluminescence spectroscopies; lattice dynamics of crystalline materials and phonon physics

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues, 

The field of optical and quantum electronics (OQE) is one of the pillars of current technology and scientific development. The generation, control and detection of electromagnetic radiation in the submillimeter regime (terahertz, infrared, visible and ultraviolet) have become ubiquitous in everyday devices and research laboratories. The interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter at the semiclassical and quantum level is, in turn, the founding block on which our current understanding and development of OQE have relied on. Moreover, the technological evolution shall continue depending to a large extent on the progress in this field, which comprises an ample portfolio on the physics of semiconductors, metals, semimetals, insulators, generation and detection of electromagnetic radiation, characterization of physical properties through the use of light as a probe or by its emission in excited materials (thermally or electrically), laser technology, and sensors, where quantum phenomena play a central role. Recent developments in the area of light-energy and energy-light conversion entail luminescent and upconversion materials, semiconductor lasers and LEDs, broad-wavelength light detectors, and imaging and plasmonic devices. Novel developments are pursued for the advancement of optical and quantum electronics, including unprecedented working principles, materials, different types of junctions, device architectures and nanophotonic devices. Therefore, for this Special Issue, contributions on the above-mentioned OQE items are invited, which may be in the form of letters, comments, regular articles or state-of-the-art reviews.

I look forward to receiving your contributions.

Dr. Sergio Jiménez Sandoval
Guest Editor

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Inorganics is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • semiconducting properties
  • quantum phenomena
  • nanomaterials
  • 2D materials
  • light–matter interactions
  • upconversion
  • photoconductivity
  • photovoltaic materials and devices
  • nanophotonic devices
  • sensors

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

8 pages, 2966 KiB  
Article
Improved Photothermal Heating of NaNdF4 Microcrystals via Low-Level Doping of Sm3+ for Thermal-Responsive Upconversion Luminescence Anti-Counterfeiting
by Ronghua Jian and Tao Pang
Inorganics 2024, 12(12), 327; https://doi.org/10.3390/inorganics12120327 - 13 Dec 2024
Viewed by 333
Abstract
This work reports the light-to-heat conversion (LHC) behavior of NaNdF4 doped with Sm3+. Due to the cross-relaxation between Nd3+ and Sm3+, the improved LHC is obtainable by introducing 5% Sm3+. When the laser power density [...] Read more.
This work reports the light-to-heat conversion (LHC) behavior of NaNdF4 doped with Sm3+. Due to the cross-relaxation between Nd3+ and Sm3+, the improved LHC is obtainable by introducing 5% Sm3+. When the laser power density is only 1.72 W/cm2, the spot temperature of NaNdF4:5%Sm3+ powder reaches as high as 138.7 ± 4.04 °C. More importantly, the photoheating response to the pump laser has favorable linear characteristics within a specific power range. A simple physical model is applied to analyze the relationship between photothermal heating and pump power. Finally, the temperature-responsive luminescence anti-counterfeiting is designed by combining the LHC material with the NaYF4:Yb3+/Ho3+/Ce3+ microcrystals. This novel strategy only requires two laser beams, and thus is more convenient to apply. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical and Quantum Electronics: Physics and Materials)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>(<b>a</b>,<b>b</b>) Rietveld refinement of XRD data and (<b>c</b>,<b>d</b>) SEM image of NaNdF<sub>4</sub>:5%Sm<sup>3+</sup> and NdF<sub>3</sub>:5%Sm<sup>3+</sup> as well as (<b>e</b>–<b>i</b>) EDX mapping of F, Na, Nd and Sm elements in NaNdF<sub>4</sub>:5%Sm<sup>3+</sup> sample.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Photothermal heating of NdF<sub>3</sub>:5%Sm<sup>3+</sup> and NaNdF<sub>4</sub>:5%Sm<sup>3+</sup> flake samples, with a diameter of 10 mm and thickness of 1 mm, under 808 nm excitation. The inset gives a simple model for analyzing the relationship between photoheating and pump laser power, in which <span class="html-italic">Q<sub>a</sub></span>, <span class="html-italic">Q<sub>d</sub></span>, and <span class="html-italic">Q<sub>T</sub></span> represent the absorbed excitation energy, dissipated thermal energy, and residual thermal energy, respectively.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>(<b>a</b>) Photoluminescence spectra of various Sm<sup>3+</sup>-doped NaNdF<sub>4</sub> and NdF<sub>3</sub> under 808 nm excitation; (<b>b</b>) decay curves of 891 nm emission in various samples; (<b>c</b>) energy level of Nd<sup>3+</sup> and Sm<sup>3+</sup> and the proposed cross-relaxation channels between Nd<sup>3+</sup> and Sm<sup>3+</sup>.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>XRD (<b>a</b>), SEM (<b>b</b>), UCL spectra (<b>c</b>), and luminescence mechanism (<b>d</b>) of NaYF<sub>4</sub>:20%Yb<sup>3+</sup>/2%Ho<sup>3+</sup>/5%Ce<sup>3+</sup> as well as the photothermal-responsive anti-counterfeiting structure designed using NaNdF<sub>4</sub>:5%Sm<sup>3+</sup> and NaYF<sub>4</sub>:20%Yb<sup>3+</sup>/2%Ho<sup>3+</sup>/5%Ce<sup>3+</sup> (<b>e</b>) and its application display (<b>f</b>).</p> Full article ">
14 pages, 4677 KiB  
Article
Enhanced Transparency and Resistive Switching Characteristics in AZO/HfO2/Ti RRAM Device via Post Annealing Process
by Yuseong Jang, Chanmin Hwang, Sanggyu Bang and Hee-Dong Kim
Inorganics 2024, 12(12), 299; https://doi.org/10.3390/inorganics12120299 - 21 Nov 2024
Viewed by 697
Abstract
As interest in transparent electronics increases, ensuring the reliability of transparent RRAM (T-RRAM) devices, which can be used to construct transparent electronics, has become increasingly important. However, defects and traps within these T-RRAM devices can degrade their reliability. In this study, we investigated [...] Read more.
As interest in transparent electronics increases, ensuring the reliability of transparent RRAM (T-RRAM) devices, which can be used to construct transparent electronics, has become increasingly important. However, defects and traps within these T-RRAM devices can degrade their reliability. In this study, we investigated the improvement of transparency and reliability of T-RRAM devices with an AZO/HfO2/Ti structure through rapid thermal annealing (RTA) at 450 °C for 60 s in a nitrogen atmosphere. The device without RTA exhibited a low transmittance of 30%, whereas the device with RTA showed a significantly higher transmittance of over 75%. Furthermore, the device operated at lower current levels after RTA, which resulted in a reduction in its operating voltages, and the forming, setting, and reset voltages changed from 3.3, 2.4, and −5.1 V, respectively, to 2, 1, and −2.7 V. This led to an improvement in the endurance characteristics of the device, which thereby suggests that these improvements can be attributed to a reduction in the defects and trap density within the T-RRAM device caused by RTA. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical and Quantum Electronics: Physics and Materials)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>(<b>a</b>) Schematic structure, (<b>b</b>) cross-section FE-SEM images, and (<b>c</b>) transmittance at wavelengths of 200 nm to 1100 nm of the proposed T-RRAM.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Resistive switching characteristics of proposed T-RRAM (<b>a</b>) without RTA and (<b>b</b>) after RTA at 450 °C for 60 s in a nitrogen atmosphere. (<b>c</b>) Retention and (<b>d</b>) endurance characteristics of T-RRAM without RTA and after RTA.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>XPS spectra of the Ti 2p region of the Ti top electrode without RTA and after RTA.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>XRD patterns of as-deposited HfO<sub>2</sub> and Ti films and HfO<sub>2</sub> and Ti films after RTA, and (inset) average grain size of the HfO<sub>2</sub> and Ti films.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>SCLC mechanism at the positive bias of proposed T-RRAM (<b>a</b>) without RTA and (<b>b</b>) after RTA.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Band diagram of proposed T-RRAM (<b>a</b>) in the low-voltage region, (<b>b</b>) medium-voltage region and (<b>c</b>) high-voltage region. (The orange arrows indicate the direction of the electric field).</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Nyquist plot of proposed T-RRAM at (<b>a</b>) HRS and (<b>b</b>) LRS.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Equivalent circuit of proposed T-RRAM at (<b>a</b>) HRS and (<b>b</b>) LRS.</p> Full article ">
9 pages, 5149 KiB  
Article
Some Aspects of Hot Carrier Photocurrent across GaAs p-n Junction
by Steponas Ašmontas, Oleksandr Masalskyi, Ihor Zharchenko, Algirdas Sužiedėlis and Jonas Gradauskas
Inorganics 2024, 12(6), 174; https://doi.org/10.3390/inorganics12060174 - 20 Jun 2024
Viewed by 943
Abstract
The photocurrent across crystalline GaAs p-n junction induced by Nd:YAG laser radiation was investigated experimentally. It is established that the displacement current is dominant at reverse and low forward bias voltages in the case of pulsed excitation. This indicates that hot carriers do [...] Read more.
The photocurrent across crystalline GaAs p-n junction induced by Nd:YAG laser radiation was investigated experimentally. It is established that the displacement current is dominant at reverse and low forward bias voltages in the case of pulsed excitation. This indicates that hot carriers do not have enough energy to overcome the p-n junction until the forward bias significantly reduces the potential barrier. At a sufficiently high forward bias, the photocurrent is determined by the diffusion of hot carriers across the p-n junction. The current–voltage (I-V) characteristics measured at different crystal lattice temperatures show that the heating of carriers by laser radiation increases with a drop in crystal lattice temperature. This study proposes a novel model for evaluating carrier temperature based on the temperature coefficient of the I-V characteristic. It is demonstrated that the heating of carriers by light diminishes the conversion efficiency of a solar cell, not only through thermalisation but also because of the conflicting interactions between the hot carrier and conventional photocurrents, which exhibit opposite polarities. These findings contribute to an understanding of hot carrier phenomena in photovoltaic devices and may prompt a revision of the intrinsic losses in solar cells. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical and Quantum Electronics: Physics and Materials)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>(<b>a</b>) Schematic of the sample and measurement circuit. (<b>b</b>) Schematic view of the formation of generation (blue) and HC (red) photocurrent across the <span class="html-italic">p-n</span> junction: 1—electron–hole pair generation by an equal-to-bandgap photon; 2—free electron heating; 3—generation of hot electron and hole pair. The stepped arrows indicate the cooling and diffusion of hot electrons. Analogous hot hole-related processes are omitted to avoid visual overloading.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>(<b>a</b>) <span class="html-italic">I-V</span> characteristics of the GaAs <span class="html-italic">p-n</span> junction in the dark (black line) and under illumination: the red line represents the HC photocurrent, and the blue line signifies the generation photocurrent. The inset shows a typical oscilloscope trace of a photocurrent pulse composed of two components, negative and positive, and a laser pulse below (not to scale). (<b>b</b>) Dependence of the HC photocurrent (normalised) on the bias voltage; <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>U</mi> <mrow> <mi>k</mi> <mi>n</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>e</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> = 0.7 V is the ‘knee’ voltage of the HC current.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p><span class="html-italic">I-V</span> characteristics in the dark (black) and with HC photocurrent (red) at temperatures of 300 K (solid lines) and 80 K (dashed lines). The bias voltages used for the calculation are <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msubsup> <mi>U</mi> <mi>R</mi> <mrow> <mi>h</mi> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> </semantics></math> = 0.70 V, <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msubsup> <mi>U</mi> <mi>R</mi> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>r</mi> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> </semantics></math> = 1.03 V, <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msubsup> <mi>U</mi> <mrow> <mi>N</mi> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>h</mi> <mi>c</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> </semantics></math> = 1.10 V, <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msubsup> <mi>U</mi> <mrow> <mi>N</mi> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>r</mi> <mi>k</mi> </mrow> </msubsup> </mrow> </semantics></math> = 1.50 V. Here, the index “<span class="html-italic">hc</span>” refers to the hot carriers, “<span class="html-italic">dark</span>” stands for the unilluminated diode, and “<span class="html-italic">N2</span>” and “<span class="html-italic">R</span>” represent liquid nitrogen and room temperature, respectively.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Electron distribution in the conduction band of the <span class="html-italic">n</span>-region of the <span class="html-italic">p-n</span> junction at a <math display="inline"><semantics> <mi>T</mi> </semantics></math> = 300 K lattice temperature and electron temperatures of <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mi>C</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> = 300 K (blue area), <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mi>C</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> = 454 K (red area), and <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>T</mi> <mi>C</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math> = 990 K (green line).</p> Full article ">
23 pages, 2646 KiB  
Article
Composition-Dependent Phonon and Thermodynamic Characteristics of C-Based XxY1−xC (X, Y ≡ Si, Ge, Sn) Alloys
by Devki N. Talwar
Inorganics 2024, 12(4), 100; https://doi.org/10.3390/inorganics12040100 - 30 Mar 2024
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1552
Abstract
Novel zinc-blende (zb) group-IV binary XC and ternary XxY1−xC alloys (X, Y ≡ Si, Ge, and Sn) have recently gained scientific and technological interest as promising alternatives to silicon for high-temperature, high-power optoelectronics, gas sensing and photovoltaic applications. Despite [...] Read more.
Novel zinc-blende (zb) group-IV binary XC and ternary XxY1−xC alloys (X, Y ≡ Si, Ge, and Sn) have recently gained scientific and technological interest as promising alternatives to silicon for high-temperature, high-power optoelectronics, gas sensing and photovoltaic applications. Despite numerous efforts made to simulate the structural, electronic, and dynamical properties of binary materials, no vibrational and/or thermodynamic studies exist for the ternary alloys. By adopting a realistic rigid-ion-model (RIM), we have reported methodical calculations to comprehend the lattice dynamics and thermodynamic traits of both binary and ternary compounds. With appropriate interatomic force constants (IFCs) of XC at ambient pressure, the study of phonon dispersions ωjq→ offered positive values of acoustic modes in the entire Brillouin zone (BZ)—implying their structural stability. For XxY1−xC, we have used Green’s function (GF) theory in the virtual crystal approximation to calculate composition x, dependent ωjq→ and one phonon density of states gω. With no additional IFCs, the RIM GF approach has provided complete ωjq→ in the crystallographic directions for both optical and acoustical phonon branches. In quasi-harmonic approximation, the theory predicted thermodynamic characteristics (e.g., Debye temperature ΘD(T) and specific heat Cv(T)) for XxY1−xC alloys. Unlike SiC, the GeC, SnC and GexSn1−xC materials have exhibited weak IFCs with low [high] values of ΘD(T) [Cv(T)]. We feel that the latter materials may not be suitable as fuel-cladding layers in nuclear reactors and high-temperature applications. However, the XC and XxY1−xC can still be used to design multi-quantum well or superlattice-based micro-/nano devices for different strategic and civilian application needs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical and Quantum Electronics: Physics and Materials)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>(<b>a</b>) The lattice structure of novel zinc-blende (zb) XC binary materials. The yellow color circles are represented for X (≡Si, Ge and Sn) atoms, while the grey color circles symbolize C atoms arranged in the tetrahedral (<math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msubsup> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>2</mn> </mrow> </msubsup> <mo>:</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">F</mi> <mover accent="true"> <mrow> <mn>4</mn> </mrow> <mo>¯</mo> </mover> <mn>3</mn> <mi mathvariant="normal">m</mi> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> point group symmetry. (<b>b</b>) The Brillouin zone of face-centered cubic material is labeled with high symmetry points (see: text).</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>(<b>a</b>) Simulated phonon dispersions of novel zinc-blende XC binary materials using a rigid-ion-model (RIM). The red color lines represent SiC, blue lines GeC and green lines SnC. Results are compared well with the experimental [<a href="#B105-inorganics-12-00100" class="html-bibr">105</a>,<a href="#B129-inorganics-12-00100" class="html-bibr">129</a>] and first-principles [<a href="#B120-inorganics-12-00100" class="html-bibr">120</a>,<a href="#B121-inorganics-12-00100" class="html-bibr">121</a>,<a href="#B122-inorganics-12-00100" class="html-bibr">122</a>,<a href="#B123-inorganics-12-00100" class="html-bibr">123</a>,<a href="#B124-inorganics-12-00100" class="html-bibr">124</a>,<a href="#B125-inorganics-12-00100" class="html-bibr">125</a>,<a href="#B126-inorganics-12-00100" class="html-bibr">126</a>] data. (<b>b</b>) The RIM results of one phonon density of states for SiC (red color lines), GeC (blue lines) and SnC (green lines).</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>(<b>a</b>) Rigid-ion model simulations of temperature-dependent Debye temperature <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi mathvariant="normal">Θ</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">D</mi> </msub> <mo>(</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> for the zinc-blende SiC (red color lines), GeC (blue lines) and SnC (green lines). For SiC, the results are compared with the experimental data (magenta color triangles). (<b>b</b>) Rigid-ion model calculations of <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">C</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">V</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mfenced separators="|"> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> </mrow> </mfenced> </mrow> </semantics></math> (in J/mol-K) as a function of T for SiC (red color lines), GeC (blue lines) and SnC (green lines). The calculations of 3C-SiC are compared with the experimental (magenta color triangles and black colored inverted triangles) (see text).</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>(<b>a</b>) Composition-dependent rigid-ion model (RIM) calculations of phonon dispersions <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mrow> <mi>ω</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mfenced separators="|"> <mrow> <mover accent="true"> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">q</mi> </mrow> <mo>→</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mfenced> </mrow> </semantics></math> for Si<sub>1−x</sub>Ge<sub>x</sub>C with x = 0.0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0. (<b>b</b>) Composition-dependent RIM calculations of one phonon density of states <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>g</mi> <mfenced separators="|"> <mrow> <mi>ω</mi> </mrow> </mfenced> </mrow> </semantics></math> for Si<sub>1−x</sub>Ge<sub>x</sub>C with x = 0.0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>(<b>a</b>) Composition-dependent rigid-ion model (RIM) calculations of phonon dispersions <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mrow> <mi>ω</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mfenced separators="|"> <mrow> <mover accent="true"> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">q</mi> </mrow> <mo>→</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mfenced> </mrow> </semantics></math> for Si<sub>1−x</sub>Sn<sub>x</sub>C with x = 0.0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0. (<b>b</b>) Composition-dependent RIM calculations of one phonon density of states <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>g</mi> <mfenced separators="|"> <mrow> <mi>ω</mi> </mrow> </mfenced> </mrow> </semantics></math> for Si<sub>1−x</sub>Sn<sub>x</sub>C with x = 0.0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>(<b>a</b>) Composition-dependent rigid-ion model (RIM) calculations of phonon dispersions <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mrow> <mi>ω</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>j</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mfenced separators="|"> <mrow> <mover accent="true"> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="bold-italic">q</mi> </mrow> <mo>→</mo> </mover> </mrow> </mfenced> </mrow> </semantics></math> for Ge<sub>1−x</sub>Sn<sub>x</sub>C with x = 0.0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0. (<b>b</b>) Composition-dependent RIM calculations of one phonon density of states <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>g</mi> <mfenced separators="|"> <mrow> <mi>ω</mi> </mrow> </mfenced> <mo> </mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> for Ge<sub>1−x</sub>Sn<sub>x</sub>C with x = 0.0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>(<b>a</b>) Composition-dependent rigid-ion model calculations of Debye temperatures Θ<sub>D</sub>(T) for Si<sub>1−x</sub>Ge<sub>x</sub>C with x = 0.0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0. (<b>b</b>) Composition-dependent RIM calculations of one specific heat <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">C</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">v</mi> <mo>(</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> for Si<sub>1−x</sub>Ge<sub>x</sub>C with x = 0.0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>(<b>a</b>) Composition-dependent rigid-ion model calculations of Debye temperatures Θ<sub>D</sub>(T) for Si<sub>1−x</sub>Sn<sub>x</sub>C with x = 0.0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0. (<b>b</b>) Composition-dependent RIM calculations of one specific heat <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">C</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">v</mi> <mo>(</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> for Si<sub>1−x</sub>Sn<sub>x</sub>C with x = 0.0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>(<b>a</b>) Composition-dependent rigid-ion model calculations of Debye temperatures Θ<sub>D</sub>(T) for Ge<sub>1−x</sub>Sn<sub>x</sub>C with x = 0.0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0. (<b>b</b>) Composition-dependent RIM calculations of one specific heat <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">C</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">v</mi> <mo>(</mo> <mi mathvariant="normal">T</mi> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math> for Ge<sub>1−x</sub>Sn<sub>x</sub>C with x = 0.0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0.</p> Full article ">

Review

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17 pages, 11024 KiB  
Review
Introductory Overview of Layer Formation Techniques of Ag Nanowires on Flexible Polymeric Substrates
by Heebo Ha, Nadeem Qaiser and Byungil Hwang
Inorganics 2024, 12(3), 65; https://doi.org/10.3390/inorganics12030065 - 21 Feb 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1783
Abstract
Ag nanowire electrodes are promising substitutes for traditional indium tin oxide (ITO) electrodes in optoelectronic applications owing to their impressive conductivity, flexibility, and transparency. This review provides an overview of recent trends in Ag nanowire electrode layer formation, including key developments, challenges, and [...] Read more.
Ag nanowire electrodes are promising substitutes for traditional indium tin oxide (ITO) electrodes in optoelectronic applications owing to their impressive conductivity, flexibility, and transparency. This review provides an overview of recent trends in Ag nanowire electrode layer formation, including key developments, challenges, and future prospects. It addresses several challenges in integrating Ag nanowires into practical applications, such as scalability, cost-effectiveness, substrate compatibility, and environmental considerations. Additionally, drawing from current trends and emerging technologies, this review explores potential avenues for improving Ag nanowire layer-forming technologies, such as material advancements, manufacturing scalability, and adaptability to evolving electronic device architectures. This review serves as a resource for researchers, engineers, and stakeholders in nanotechnology and optoelectronics, and underscores the relationship between advancements in patterning and the application of Ag nanowire electrodes. Through an examination of key developments, challenges, and future prospects, this review contributes to the collective knowledge base and encourages continued innovation in the ever-evolving realm of Ag nanowire-based optoelectronics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical and Quantum Electronics: Physics and Materials)
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Figure 1
<p>Synthesis, characterization, and applications of Ag nanowires [<a href="#B26-inorganics-12-00065" class="html-bibr">26</a>]. Reproduced from Ref. [<a href="#B26-inorganics-12-00065" class="html-bibr">26</a>] under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) License.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Ag nanowire layer formation using spray coating [<a href="#B36-inorganics-12-00065" class="html-bibr">36</a>]. (<b>A</b>) Schematic of Ag nanowire synthesis with PVP (red lines) and camphorquinone (CQ; blue dots) capping; (<b>B</b>) fabrication of Ag nanowire network via spray coating; (<b>C</b>) solvent welding and corresponding state of Ag nanowire junctions; (<b>D</b>) solvent-based plasmonic welding; and (<b>E</b>) combined solvent-based plasmonic and Joule-heating welding. Reproduced from Ref. [<a href="#B36-inorganics-12-00065" class="html-bibr">36</a>] under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) License.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Formation of Ag nanowire (AgNW) layers using dip coating. Schematic diagram of dip-coating and hot-pressing processes for embedding Ag nanowires into PET fabric [<a href="#B43-inorganics-12-00065" class="html-bibr">43</a>]. Reproduced from Ref. [<a href="#B43-inorganics-12-00065" class="html-bibr">43</a>] under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) License.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Comparison of the degree of alignment of silver nanowires [<a href="#B42-inorganics-12-00065" class="html-bibr">42</a>]: (<b>a</b>) SEM image of unaligned silver nanowires; (<b>b</b>) SEM image of silver nanowires aligned using temperature-controlled dip coating process; (<b>c</b>) SEM image of silver nanowires transferred to PDMS; (<b>d</b>) analysis of degree of alignment of unaligned silver nanowires; (<b>e</b>) analysis of degree of alignment of silver nanowires aligned using temperature-controlled dip coating process; and (<b>f</b>) analysis of degree of alignment of transferred silver nanowires. Insets of (<b>d</b>–<b>f</b>) show the distribution of nanowires according to the angle, and the amount of silver nanowires is expressed in color. Reproduced from Ref. [<a href="#B42-inorganics-12-00065" class="html-bibr">42</a>] under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) License.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>R2R-processed continuous patterning by selective calendering: (<b>a</b>) schematic illustration of patterning via R2R manufacturing; (<b>b</b>) selective calendering mechanism of Ag nanowire-PVP transparent conductive film using an embossed pattern roll; (<b>c</b>) pressure-sensitive paper pressed by an embossed pattern roll; and (<b>d</b>) comparison of the resistance between the unpressed and pressed part in a single-line pattern. Reproduced from Ref. [<a href="#B48-inorganics-12-00065" class="html-bibr">48</a>] under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) License.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>(<b>left</b>) (<b>a</b>) aligned angle of carbon fiber to an imaginary perpendicular line—carbon fibers with aligned angle less than 45° are colored red, and above 45° are colored blue; (<b>right</b>) (<b>a</b>) overlaid colored surface FESEM image of carbon fiber thin film [<a href="#B49-inorganics-12-00065" class="html-bibr">49</a>]. (<b>left</b>) (<b>b</b>) schematic of electron pathway is overlaid on FESEM image of CF thin film, in which majority of CFs are aligned perpendicular to direction of applied voltage (perpendicular CFTF); (<b>right</b>) (<b>b</b>) majority of CFs aligned parallel to direction of applied voltage (parallel CFTF) [<a href="#B49-inorganics-12-00065" class="html-bibr">49</a>]. Reproduced from Ref. [<a href="#B49-inorganics-12-00065" class="html-bibr">49</a>] under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) License.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Photographs of Ag nanowire-based films prepared through (<b>a</b>) Mayer rod coating, (<b>b</b>) spin coating, (<b>c</b>) spray coating, and (<b>d</b>) vacuum-filtration methods. Insets are corresponding diagrams of these four methods. Reproduced from Ref. [<a href="#B54-inorganics-12-00065" class="html-bibr">54</a>] under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) License.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Schematic diagrams of the overall spin-coating processes and their effects upon NW alignment [<a href="#B55-inorganics-12-00065" class="html-bibr">55</a>]: (<b>a</b>) the conventional spin-coating setup (<b>i</b>) and the proposed off-center spin-coating setup (<b>ii</b>) with inset polarized optical microscope images of the as-deposited Si nanowires; (<b>b</b>) the forces involved in the off-center spin-coating mechanism, including Inertial (centrifugal) Force I, due to centripetal acceleration (blue), Inertial Force II (red), due to tangential acceleration, and the resultant force (green); (<b>c</b>) the sequential influence of the resultant force upon the uniaxial alignment of the NWs that are in partial contact with the substrate surface. Reproduced from Ref. [<a href="#B55-inorganics-12-00065" class="html-bibr">55</a>] under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) License.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Schematic of the coating process for the production of transparent Ag nanowire (AgNW) electrodes using a doctor-blade system: (<b>a</b>) applying an AgNW suspension, (<b>b</b>) blade coating, and (<b>c</b>) drying in an oven. Reproduced from Ref. [<a href="#B59-inorganics-12-00065" class="html-bibr">59</a>] under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) License.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Schematic diagrams of Ag nanowire (AgNW)-based conductive ink fabrication and the inkjet printing process. A schematic of the deposited Ag nanowire flexible transparent conductive film is shown in the center. Reproduced from Ref. [<a href="#B64-inorganics-12-00065" class="html-bibr">64</a>] under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) License.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Sintering at shorter distances results in lower sheet resistance and requires a smaller number of flashes [<a href="#B65-inorganics-12-00065" class="html-bibr">65</a>] (<b>A</b>). The higher light intensity at shorter distances causes a higher surface roughness; it exponentially decreases with increasing sintering distance according to the decrease of light intensity. (Every datapoint consists of three corresponding samples, with every sample measured on two locations with the profilometer (line measurement); the error bars represent the standard deviation of each population). (<b>B</b>). The layer thickness decreases linearly when increasing the sintering distance for JS-A102A at a flashing intensity of 100% and a flash and cooling time of 2 s. (Each data point is representing the average of 8 to 12 measurements distributed over four to six different samples. The error bars represent the standard deviation of each population). (<b>C</b>). Reproduced from Ref. [<a href="#B65-inorganics-12-00065" class="html-bibr">65</a>] under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) License.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Fabrication of nanofiber membrane-based flexible capacitive pressure sensor: (<b>a</b>,<b>b</b>) preparation of Ag nanowires (AgNWs); (<b>c</b>) preparation of spinning solution; (<b>d</b>) electrospinning process; and (<b>e</b>–<b>g</b>) assembly of sensors—electrode printing and ultrasonic welding. Reproduced from Ref. [<a href="#B66-inorganics-12-00065" class="html-bibr">66</a>] under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) License.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Gravure-printed lines of Ag nanowires and graphene on AGPTi: (<b>a</b>) G-Ag nanowires/AGPTi/PET; (<b>c</b>) G-graphene/AGPTi/PET) and GPTi; (<b>b</b>) G-Ag nanowires/GPTi/PET; and (<b>d</b>) G-graphene/GPTi/PET), previously deposited on PET. Reproduced from Ref. [<a href="#B76-inorganics-12-00065" class="html-bibr">76</a>] under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) License.</p> Full article ">
17 pages, 4703 KiB  
Review
Polymeric Protection for Silver Nanowire-Based Transparent Conductive Electrodes: Performance and Applications
by Heebo Ha, Jun Young Cheong, Tae Gwang Yun and Byungil Hwang
Inorganics 2023, 11(10), 409; https://doi.org/10.3390/inorganics11100409 - 16 Oct 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2494
Abstract
Silver nanowires (AgNWs) are a potential alternative to conventional transparent conductive materials for various applications, such as flexible and transparent electrodes in optoelectronic devices, including touch screens, solar cells, and flexible displays. However, AgNW electrodes face degradation due to environmental factors, electrical instability, [...] Read more.
Silver nanowires (AgNWs) are a potential alternative to conventional transparent conductive materials for various applications, such as flexible and transparent electrodes in optoelectronic devices, including touch screens, solar cells, and flexible displays. However, AgNW electrodes face degradation due to environmental factors, electrical instability, and mechanical stress. To overcome these challenges, strategies to protect AgNW-based electrodes via the incorporation of polymeric materials were widely investigated to improve the durability and stability of AgNW-based electrodes. This review paper gives a comprehensive overview of the incorporation of polymeric materials with AgNW electrodes, emphasizing their performance, and applications. We compare the different polymeric materials and their effect on the electrical, optical, and mechanical properties of AgNW electrodes. Furthermore, we evaluate the key factors affecting the choice of protective layers, such as their compatibility with AgNWs, and also we present current challenges and future opportunities for the development of polymeric materials for AgNW electrodes in emerging technologies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical and Quantum Electronics: Physics and Materials)
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Graphical abstract

Graphical abstract
Full article ">Figure 1
<p>An overview of polymeric materials for AgNWs. Reproduced with permission from refs. [<a href="#B31-inorganics-11-00409" class="html-bibr">31</a>,<a href="#B32-inorganics-11-00409" class="html-bibr">32</a>,<a href="#B33-inorganics-11-00409" class="html-bibr">33</a>,<a href="#B37-inorganics-11-00409" class="html-bibr">37</a>,<a href="#B38-inorganics-11-00409" class="html-bibr">38</a>,<a href="#B39-inorganics-11-00409" class="html-bibr">39</a>,<a href="#B40-inorganics-11-00409" class="html-bibr">40</a>,<a href="#B41-inorganics-11-00409" class="html-bibr">41</a>,<a href="#B42-inorganics-11-00409" class="html-bibr">42</a>,<a href="#B43-inorganics-11-00409" class="html-bibr">43</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Change in optical transmittance, haze, and sheet resistance as a function of (<b>a</b>) the number of scratches made using a pen, (<b>b</b>) the number of wipes using IPA, (<b>c</b>) the hours of exposure to ambient air at 85 °C, and (<b>d</b>) the number of bending cycles of PU coating on the AgNW electrodes. Reproduced with permission from ref. [<a href="#B33-inorganics-11-00409" class="html-bibr">33</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>(<b>a</b>) A schematic illustration of the fabrication of a transparent capacitive array comprising an acrylic elastomer layer as the dielectric spacer between two transparent AgNW/PU composite electrodes. (<b>b</b>) Photograph of a pressure sensor array (10 × 10 pixels), each pixel representing a square area of 1.5 × 1.5 mm<sup>2</sup> separated by 1 mm from other areas. (<b>c</b>) Photograph of the sensor array bent at 180°. (<b>d</b>) SEM image of a surface area, half of which comprises patterned AgNW/PU electrodes. (<b>e</b>) Change in the capacitance, ΔC/C0, of one pixel with transversely applied pressure. (<b>f</b>) Mapping of the measured capacitance changes of pixels in the area where a pressure of 30 KPa was applied on the central pixel. Reproduced with permission from ref. [<a href="#B37-inorganics-11-00409" class="html-bibr">37</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>(<b>a</b>) A schematic of the structure of PMMA/AgNW electrodes; (<b>b</b>) temperature rise in the PMMA/AgNW electrode-based thin film heaters; (<b>c</b>,<b>d</b>) top views of AgNW electrodes after cyclic bendings without and with PMMA overcoating. Partial fragments of AgNWs are highlighted by yellow dot square frames. (<b>e</b>) Temperature increase curves of PMMA/AgNW electrode-based thin film heaters; the inset images are the optical photographs of the defogging process on the Ag-nanowire-based film heater. (<b>f</b>) SERS signals of PMMA/AgNW electrodes. Reproduced from ref. [<a href="#B38-inorganics-11-00409" class="html-bibr">38</a>] under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) License.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>(<b>a</b>) UV–vis transmittance spectra of AgNW/PMMA as a function of the number of AgNW coatings (1–4 times). (<b>b</b>) Transmittance at 550 nm of (<b>a</b>) versus the sheet resistance measured for each sample with the different number of AgNW coatings. Figures of merit were calculated from the transmittance and sheet resistance values and are presented together in (<b>b</b>). The numbers in parentheses denote the number of AgNW coatings. Schematic illustrations of (<b>c</b>) the AgNW/PMMA TE fabrication process and (<b>d</b>) the applications in transparent QLEDs. Performance of the transparent QLEDs with the AgNW/PMMA top electrodes. (<b>e</b>) Current density–voltage, (<b>f</b>) luminance–voltage, and (<b>g</b>) current efficiency characteristics. Reproduced with permission from ref. [<a href="#B39-inorganics-11-00409" class="html-bibr">39</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>(<b>a</b>) Schematic illustration of the fabrication procedure of the AgNW/PVDF composite film. (<b>b</b>) Through-plane thermal conductivity and through-plane thermal diffusivity at different volume fractions. (<b>c</b>) In-plane thermal conductivity and in-plane thermal diffusivity at different volume fractions. (<b>d</b>) SEM image of the AgNW/PVDF composite film forming a thermally conductive pathway. (<b>e</b>) Dispersion principle diagram of AgNW in the AgNW/PVDF composite film. Reproduced with permission from ref. [<a href="#B32-inorganics-11-00409" class="html-bibr">32</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>The fabrication and characteristics of PVDF/AgNW electrodes. (<b>a</b>) The fabrication of transparent PVDF/AgNW electrodes. (<b>b</b>) The sheet resistance of the AgNWs films decreasing with increasing concentrations. (<b>c</b>) The sheet resistance of PVDF/AgNW electrodes significantly decreasing by about half compared with that of AgNW films with the same concentrations. Flexibility tests and the long-term stability of the PVDF/AgNW electrodes are shown. The area of the electrode was 3 cm<sup>2</sup> (1 cm × 3 cm). (<b>d</b>) <span class="html-italic">I–V</span> curves of the PVDF/AgNW electrodes bent at different angles. The responses show that the bent electrodes did not change compared with those in the unbent state. (<b>e</b>) Dynamical resistance variation in the PVDF/AgNW electrodes with bending angles from 0° to 180° for 60 s. (<b>f</b>) The variation in the sheet resistance of the PVDF/AgNW electrodes after repeated bending from 0° to 180° for various cycles. (<b>g</b>) The long-term stability of the PVDF/AgNW electrodes after exposure to air for 30 days. Reproduced with permission from ref. [<a href="#B40-inorganics-11-00409" class="html-bibr">40</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>(<b>a</b>) Schematic representation of the preparation of the AgNW/PANI:PSS composite transparent conducting film via layer-by-layer coating. (<b>b</b>) Filling properties of the conducting film with and without PANI:PSS. (<b>c</b>) The AFM image and (<b>d</b>) height distribution of the AgNW/PANI transparent electrode after pressing. Reproduced with permission from ref. [<a href="#B41-inorganics-11-00409" class="html-bibr">41</a>]. (<b>e</b>) Schematic showing the preparation of the layer-structured AgNW/PANI composite film. First step: an AgNW dispersion was cast on a glass slide to form a deposition layer; second step: a PANI solution was cast over the AgNW layer; third step: thermal evaporation was conducted and the AgNW/PANI composite film was peeled off from the glass substrate. Reproduced with permission from ref. [<a href="#B31-inorganics-11-00409" class="html-bibr">31</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Evolution of generated temperature of the AgNW/PEDOT:PSS composite film with a (<b>a</b>) hexagonal pattern at varied voltages from 1 to 8 V, and (<b>b</b>) with a square pattern at varied voltages from 10 to 50 V [<a href="#B42-inorganics-11-00409" class="html-bibr">42</a>]. Reproduced from ref. [<a href="#B42-inorganics-11-00409" class="html-bibr">42</a>] under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) License. (<b>c</b>) J–V curve for the solar cell using AgNW/PEDOT:PSS composites, the configuration of which is sketched in the inset [<a href="#B43-inorganics-11-00409" class="html-bibr">43</a>]. Reproduced from ref. [<a href="#B43-inorganics-11-00409" class="html-bibr">43</a>] under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) License.</p> Full article ">
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