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Feature Papers in 'Surface Sciences and Technology' Section, 2nd Edition

A special issue of Applied Sciences (ISSN 2076-3417). This special issue belongs to the section "Surface Sciences and Technology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 September 2024) | Viewed by 19276

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Eiji Tokunaga

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Physics, Faculty of Science Division I, Tokyo University of Science, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 162-8601, Japan
Interests: nonlinear optics; optical spectroscopy; exciton physics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

We are pleased to announce the publication of the Special Issue "Feature Papers in 'Surface Sciences and Technology' Section, 2nd Edition”. The “Surface Sciences and Technology” section covers interdisciplinary research areas related to surfaces and interfaces. We invite you to contribute a peer-reviewed, comprehensive review, or original research paper for possible publication in this Special Issue. The subject areas of the Special Issue are as follows:

  • coatings;
  • thin and thick films;
  • surface tension;
  • surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy;
  • scanning probe microscopy;
  • functional surfaces;
  • surface nanotechnology and devices;
  • semiconductors: surface and interface;
  • biointerfaces;
  • surface electrochemistry;
  • surface science applied to energy conversion and storage;
  • surface science of catalysis (photocatalysis, electrocatalysis);
  • surface nonlinear optics;
  • surface plasmon;
  • exotic surfaces such as meta-surface or topological surface state.

Prof. Dr. Eiji Tokunaga
Guest Editor

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Related Special Issue

Published Papers (11 papers)

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18 pages, 3819 KiB  
Article
Advancing a Comprehensive Model for Carbon Steel Corrosion in Weak Acids: Validation Using Valeric and Acetic Acids
by Elena Messinese, Marco Ormellese and Andrea Brenna
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(23), 11341; https://doi.org/10.3390/app142311341 - 5 Dec 2024
Viewed by 416
Abstract
Acidic corrosion in industrial environments represents a serious threat that requires an active prevention and management strategy. In this context, weak acids can create a severe corrosion environment for metallic surfaces, sometimes exceeding the severity observed in strongly acidic solutions under similar conditions. [...] Read more.
Acidic corrosion in industrial environments represents a serious threat that requires an active prevention and management strategy. In this context, weak acids can create a severe corrosion environment for metallic surfaces, sometimes exceeding the severity observed in strongly acidic solutions under similar conditions. While most of the research efforts of the last decades in the field of the predictive modeling of acidic corrosion have been focused on the specific case of sweet corrosion caused by carbonic acid, the goal of this work is to describe and validate a predictive model to be used as a more transversal tool for acidic corrosion. The model, called the Tafel–Piontelli model, leverages Tafel law to mechanistically describe the electrochemical behavior of carbon steel in acidic aqueous environments. Two different acids, acetic and valeric, were used to experimentally evaluate the performance of the model in weakly acidic solutions, varying the pH and the temperature conditions. Potentiodynamic polarization tests and mass loss tests were performed, allowing us to assess the kinetic parameters (the Tafel slope and the exchange current density of the cathodic and anodic reactions) and corrosion rates of the corrosion process. The promising results suggest that the Tafel–Piontelli model is able to adapt to different scenarios and its intrinsically theoretical nature allows us to extend its predictions outside the range of experimental conditions used to validate it. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in 'Surface Sciences and Technology' Section, 2nd Edition)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Three-dimensional molecular structures of valeric acid (<b>a</b>) and acetic acid (<b>b</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Evans diagram of anodic and cathodic reactions considered in Tafel–Piontelli model.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Cathodic Tafel slope as function of pH and temperature for valeric acid solutions (<b>a</b>,<b>c</b>) and acetic acid solutions (<b>b</b>,<b>d</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Anodic Tafel slope as function of pH and temperature for valeric acid solutions (<b>a</b>,<b>c</b>) and acetic acid solutions (<b>b</b>,<b>d</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Comparison between experimental and predicted cathodic exchange current density exponential decay with respect to pH in valeric acid solutions at 20 °C (<b>a</b>), 40 °C (<b>b</b>), and 60 °C (<b>c</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Comparison between experimental and predicted cathodic exchange current density exponential decay with respect to pH in acetic acid solutions at 20 °C (<b>a</b>), 40 °C (<b>b</b>), and 60 °C (<b>c</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Comparison between experimental and predicted anodic exchange current density exponential decay with respect to pH in valeric acid solutions at 20 °C (<b>a</b>), 40 °C (<b>b</b>), and 60 °C (<b>c</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Comparison between experimental and predicted anodic exchange current density exponential decay with respect to pH in acetic acid solutions at 20 °C (<b>a</b>), 40 °C (<b>b</b>), and 60 °C (<b>c</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Comparison between experimental and predicted corrosion rate exponential decay with respect to temperature in valeric acid solutions (<b>a</b>) and acetic acid solutions (<b>b</b>) with pH ranging from 3.0 to 4.0.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Comparison between experimental and predicted corrosion rate exponential decay with respect to pH in valeric acid solutions at 20 °C (<b>a</b>), 40 °C (<b>b</b>), and 60 °C (<b>c</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Comparison between experimental and predicted corrosion rate exponential decay with respect to pH in acetic acid solutions at 20 °C (<b>a</b>), 40 °C (<b>b</b>), and 60 °C (<b>c</b>).</p> Full article ">
17 pages, 4391 KiB  
Article
One-Step Magneton Sputtering of Crystalline Cu-Doped TiO2 Coatings: Characterization and Antibacterial Activity
by Maria P. Nikolova, Sadegh Yousefi, Yordan Handzhiyski and Margarita D. Apostolova
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(20), 9578; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14209578 - 21 Oct 2024
Viewed by 985
Abstract
Early biofilm formation could be inhibited by applying a thin biocompatible copper coating to reduce periprosthetic infections. In this study, we deposited crystalline Cu-doped TiO2 films using one-step DC magnetron sputtering in an oxygen atmosphere on a biased Ti6Al4V alloy without external [...] Read more.
Early biofilm formation could be inhibited by applying a thin biocompatible copper coating to reduce periprosthetic infections. In this study, we deposited crystalline Cu-doped TiO2 films using one-step DC magnetron sputtering in an oxygen atmosphere on a biased Ti6Al4V alloy without external heating. The bias voltage varied from −25 V to −100 V, and the resultant substrate temperature was measured. The deposited coatings were characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), microhardness, scratch and hydrophilicity tests, potentiodynamic polarization measurements, and antibacterial assays against S. aureus and E. coli. The findings demonstrated that when a higher negative bias is applied, the substrate temperature drops, and the anatase to rutile transformation is initiated without indicating obvious Cu-containing phases. The SEM images of the films showed spherical agglomerates with homogeneously distributed Cu with decreasing Cu content as the bias value increased. Higher bias results in the grain refinement of the thinning coatings with more lattice microstrain and more defects, together with an increase in water contact angles and hardness values. Samples biased at −75 V exhibited the highest adhesive strength between coatings and substrate, whereas the specimen biased at −50 V demonstrated higher corrosion resistance. Cu-containing TiO2 coatings with pure anatase phase composition and Cu concentrations of 2.62 wt.% demonstrated excellent bactericidal activity against both S. aureus and E. coli. The layers containing 2.34 wt.% Cu exhibited very good antibacterial properties against S. aureus, only. According to these findings, the produced copper-doped TiO2 coatings have high bactericidal qualities in vitro and may be used to prepare orthopaedic and dental implants in the future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in 'Surface Sciences and Technology' Section, 2nd Edition)
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Figure 1
<p>Images of the glow-discharge cleaning (<b>a</b>) the deposition of the oxide coatings (<b>b</b>) and a schematic view of the experimental setup with a thermocouple sensor (<b>c</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Minimal and maximal temperature values measured at different biases of the substrates during a rotating cycle.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Representative microstructure images (left for low magnification and right for high) of the samples biased at (<b>a</b>) −25 V, (<b>b</b>) −50 V, (<b>c</b>) −75 V, and (<b>d</b>) −100 V.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Representative cross-section images of the coatings on the samples biased at (<b>a</b>) −25 V, (<b>b</b>) −50 V, (<b>c</b>) −75 V, and (<b>d</b>) −100 V.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Representative SEM-EDS elemental mapping of Cu within the coatings on the samples biased at (<b>a</b>) −25 V, (<b>b</b>) −50 V, (<b>c</b>) −75 V, and (<b>d</b>) −100 V.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>XRD diffraction patterns of the substrate and Cu-doped-TiO<sub>2</sub> coated samples at different bias values.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Representative microscopic images of the scratch track on the oxide coatings deposited at (<b>a</b>) −25 V, (<b>b</b>) −50 V, (<b>c</b>) −75 V, and (<b>d</b>) −100 V bias voltage. The normal load increases from 0 to 50 N from left to right.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Water contact angle of the etched (<b>a</b>) and flat (<b>b</b>) substrates and coated samples at different bias values. n = 3, * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01 compared to control.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Potentiodynamic polarization curves in SBF solution at 37 °C of the substrate and coated samples at different bias values.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Representative photos of (<b>a</b>) <span class="html-italic">E. coli</span> and (<b>b</b>) <span class="html-italic">S. aureus</span> colonies on agar plates after the 24 h incubation period. The percent of bacterial growth inhibition relative to Ti6Al4V is indicated by the numbers in the right corner. The data are shown as average ± SD (n = 3). Significant deviations from the control sample, Ti6Al4V, are shown by the symbols: * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001, # <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05.</p> Full article ">
15 pages, 8110 KiB  
Article
Analysis of Plasma Electrolytic Oxidation Process Parameters for Optimizing Adhesion in Aluminum–Composite Hybrid Structures
by Rafael Resende Lucas, Emanuelle Roza Rodrigues Silva, Luís Felipe Barbosa Marques, Francisco José Gomes da Silva, Ana Beatriz Ramos Moreira Abrahão, Miguel de Omena Lucas Vieira, Luís Rogério de Oliveira Hein, Edson Cocchieri Botelho, Rogério Pinto Mota and Rita de Cássia Mendonça Sales-Contini
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(17), 7972; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14177972 - 6 Sep 2024
Viewed by 777
Abstract
The Plasma Electrolytic Oxidation (PEO) process was investigated to enhance the adhesion of AA2024-O aluminum alloy with a polyetherimide (PEI) matrix composite, using oxy-fuel welding (OFW). A Central Composite Design (CCD) statistical model was used to optimize three independent parameters in PEO: immersion [...] Read more.
The Plasma Electrolytic Oxidation (PEO) process was investigated to enhance the adhesion of AA2024-O aluminum alloy with a polyetherimide (PEI) matrix composite, using oxy-fuel welding (OFW). A Central Composite Design (CCD) statistical model was used to optimize three independent parameters in PEO: immersion time (s), duty cycle (%), and electrolyte concentration (Na2B4O7·10H2O), aiming to achieve a maximum value of shear strength of the hybrid joint (in MPa). The hybrid joint without PEO treatment presented a resistance of 2.2 MPa while the best condition presented a resistance of 9.5 MPa, resulting in a value 4× higher than the untreated material, due to the characteristics of the coating, which presented a more hydrophilic surface, allowing better mechanical interlocking with the polymer matrix and resulting in mixed-mode failure (adhesive, cohesive, and light fiber). In addition to improving adhesion, the PEO treatment provided better corrosion resistance to the alloy, forming an inert aluminum oxide (Al2O3) coating, with an improvement of approximately 99.84% compared to the untreated alloy. The statistical design covers about 77.15% of the total variability of the PEO + welding process, with independent factors influencing around 48.4% of the variability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in 'Surface Sciences and Technology' Section, 2nd Edition)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>AA2024 sample with the description of the region treated with PEO.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Graph of the PEO process, with application of voltage and current density response.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>FLUKE 117 True RMS thermometer with type K thermocouple on the sample to be welded.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Comparison of the contact angle value between untreated aluminum and PEO treatment.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Fractography of the samples after the lap shear test. Adhesive failure (yellow arrows), cohesive failure (blue arrows), light fiber failure (red arrows), and edge effect (red circle).</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Fractures on the interface surface. Region where the deformation was verified (red circle), plastic deformation in AA2024-O (purple arrow), edge effect in PEI/glass fiber (green arrow), and material anchor points (yellow arrows).</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Polarization curves of the AA2024 aluminum alloy with and without PEO treatment, with orange arrows indicating the breaking point of the coatings (Epit).</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>SEM of AA2024 aluminum alloy, untreated (<b>a</b>,<b>b</b>) with magnification in 1000× and 5000× and treated (<b>c</b>,<b>d</b>) with magnification in 1000× and 5000×.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Illustration of the passive oxide layer (<b>left</b> side) that allows interaction with Cl ions and the thicker PEO layer (<b>right</b> side) protecting the base material.</p> Full article ">
14 pages, 4267 KiB  
Article
Factors Affecting the Efficiency of Hydrophobic Coatings—Experience from Application on Sandstone
by Lucia Dunčková, Tatiana Durmeková and Renáta Adamcová
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(11), 4541; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14114541 - 25 May 2024
Viewed by 693
Abstract
Protecting stone on facades or exterior art works from deterioration is primarily about protecting them from rainwater. Hydrophobic coatings are widely used for this purpose. Here, two factors affecting the long-term efficiency of some coatings applied on stones were investigated: the number of [...] Read more.
Protecting stone on facades or exterior art works from deterioration is primarily about protecting them from rainwater. Hydrophobic coatings are widely used for this purpose. Here, two factors affecting the long-term efficiency of some coatings applied on stones were investigated: the number of coating layers and the curing time after their application. Tests of water absorption by capillarity, absorption at total immersion in water, and a visual check of the penetration depth have been carried out. The coating’s efficiency coefficient Cef was defined as the ratio of the maximum water absorption of a treated sample to an untreated one. Two commercial silicon-based coatings were applied on the highly porous Hořice sandstone alternatively. Curing times of 2 days vs. 2 weeks, and 2 coating layers vs. 3 layers were compared. The experiments showed that the coating’s efficiency is affected more by the curing time than by the number of applied coating layers. The curing time of 2 days after coating’s application is too short, but 2 weeks proved to be sufficient for both tested coatings. There was no big difference regarding the number of coating layers; two layers seem to be sufficient if a long rain-free curing time can be guaranteed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in 'Surface Sciences and Technology' Section, 2nd Edition)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Two of the many buildings in Bratislava (Slovakia) with Hořice sandstone facades.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Color changes of the Hořice sandstone with coatings. (<b>a</b>) Untreated sample, (<b>b</b>) sample with Funcosil SNL coating, and (<b>c</b>) sample with Antipluviol S coating.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Estimated contact angle between a water droplet and the sandstone surface coated with Funcosil SNL.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Waterproofing effect on the contact angle of a water droplet. H-29 with Antipluviol S, H-5 untreated/uncoated, H-36 with Funcosil SNL.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Pore-size distribution of the Hořice sandstone determined by Hg-porosimetry.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Visual evaluation of the penetration depth of applied coatings, Hořice sandstone. 1—hydrophobic zone, 2—partly hydrophobic zone, 3—hydrophilic zone.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>WAC curves—samples with Antipluviol S coatings compared to untreated ones.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>WAC curves—samples with Funcosil SNL coatings compared to untreated ones.</p> Full article ">
13 pages, 6236 KiB  
Article
Microstructural Investigations of Weld Deposits from Manganese Austenitic Alloy on X2CrNiMoN22-5-3 Duplex Stainless Steel
by Ion Mitelea, Daniel Mutașcu, Olimpiu Karancsi, Corneliu Marius Crăciunescu, Dragoș Buzdugan and Ion-Dragoș Uțu
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(9), 3751; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14093751 - 27 Apr 2024
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1287
Abstract
Duplex stainless steels are materials with high performance under mechanical stress and stress corrosion in chloride ion environments. Despite being used in many new applications such as components for offshore drilling platforms as well as in the chemical and petrochemical industry, the automotive [...] Read more.
Duplex stainless steels are materials with high performance under mechanical stress and stress corrosion in chloride ion environments. Despite being used in many new applications such as components for offshore drilling platforms as well as in the chemical and petrochemical industry, the automotive industry, etc., they face issues of wear and hardness that limit current applications and prevent the creation of new use opportunities. To address these shortcomings, it is proposed to develop a hardfacing process by a special welding technique using a universal TIG source adapted for manual welding with a pulsed current, and a manganese austenitic alloy electrode as filler material. The opportunity to deposit layers of manganese austenitic steel through welding creates advantages related to the possibility of achieving high mechanical characteristics of this steel exclusively in the working area of the part, while the substrate material will not undergo significant changes in chemical composition. As a result of the high strain hardening rate, assisted mainly by mechanical twinning, manganese austenitic alloys having a face-centered cubic crystal lattice (f.c.c) and low stacking fault energy (SFE = 20–40 mJ/m2) at room temperature, exhibit high wear resistance and exceptional toughness. Following cold deformation, the hardness of the deposited metal increases to 465 HV5–490 HV5. The microstructural characteristics were investigated through optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Vickers hardness measurements (HV). The obtained results highlighted the feasibility of forming hard coatings on duplex stainless steel substrates. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in 'Surface Sciences and Technology' Section, 2nd Edition)
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Figure 1
<p>The parameters of the pulsed current welding process.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Macrographic images of the layer—substrate system: (<b>a</b>) one layer deposited; (<b>b</b>) two layers deposited; (<b>c</b>) three layers deposited.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>The microstructure of the base metal.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Micrograph of the MD–MB interface at the deposition of the first layer.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Micrograph of the outer layer deposited by hardfacing welding.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Modes of hammering the deposited layer.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Optical micrographic image (×1000) of the work-hardened layer.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>SEM image and the concentration profiles of the alloying elements on one side and the other of the interface between the deposited metal and the base metal.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>X-ray diffraction pattern of the substrate.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>X-ray diffraction pattern of the layer microzone near the interface with the substrate material.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Hardness gradient curve on the cross-section of the layer-substrate system.</p> Full article ">
12 pages, 3062 KiB  
Article
Structural and Tribological Analysis of Brake Disc–Pad Pair Material for Cars
by Filip Ilie and Andreea Catalina Ctristescu
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(8), 3523; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14083523 - 22 Apr 2024
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1729
Abstract
The study of the tribological behavior of the braking system in auto vehicles requires knowing the characteristics of the material in contact and, in the work process, the friction pair brake disc pads. Material structural analysis is necessary because the wear process depends [...] Read more.
The study of the tribological behavior of the braking system in auto vehicles requires knowing the characteristics of the material in contact and, in the work process, the friction pair brake disc pads. Material structural analysis is necessary because the wear process depends both on the friction-pair chemical composition (brake disc pads) and on the work process parameters (pressing force, rotational speed, traffic conditions, etc.). The material of the brake discs is generally the same, gray cast iron, and the brake pads can be semimetallic (particles of steel, copper, brass, and graphite, all united with a special resin), organic materials (particles of rubber, glass, and Kevlar, all joined with the help of a resin), composite materials that contain different constituents, and ceramic materials (rarely have small copper particles). Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to analyze the crystalline structure, tribological behavior (at friction and wear), and the mechanical properties of the materials of the brake disc–pad friction pair specific to the field through study and analysis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in 'Surface Sciences and Technology' Section, 2nd Edition)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Assembly braking system (<b>a</b>) with the component elements (<b>b</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Brake pad: 1. friction material; 2. intermediate layer; 3. adhesive; 4. main frame; 5. damping layer.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Resin film over brake pad analysis area.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Removal of the resin layer.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Brake disc sample polishing.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Metallographic structure of the brake disc material (<b>a</b>); EDS spectrum of the delimited area (<b>b</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Brake pad material metallographic structure (<b>a</b>); EDS spectrum of the delimited area (<b>b</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Effect of velocity on the COF of various metallic friction materials with 10 wt.% (<b>a</b>) and 20 wt.% (<b>b</b>): M<sub>0</sub>—metal-free reference material; SF—steel fiber; BF—brass fiber; CP—copper powder. Index 10 si 20 represents the metal amount in weight (10 wt.% and 20 wt.%).</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Cumulative wear behavior of composite materials based on two test methods, with speed sensitivity of 10.0, 12.5, and 15.0 m/s, respectively, load sensitivity of 2, 3, and 4 MPa, speed of 12.5 m/s, and load capacity of 3 MPa.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>SEM images: (<b>a</b>) CP<sub>10</sub> (low wear and discoloration), (<b>b</b>) M<sub>0</sub> (high discoloration), and (<b>c</b>) CP<sub>20</sub> (high wear, low discoloration).</p> Full article ">
15 pages, 5448 KiB  
Article
Tribological Analysis of Steels in Fuel Environments: Impact of Alloy Content and Hardness
by Ali Z. Macknojia, Vanessa L. Montoya, Euan Cairns, Mohammad Eskandari, Shuangbiao Liu, Yip-Wah Chung, Q. Jane Wang, Stephen P. Berkebile, Samir M. Aouadi, Andrey A. Voevodin and Diana Berman
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(5), 1898; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14051898 - 26 Feb 2024
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1512
Abstract
The performance and durability of high-pressure fuel systems in combustion engines are critical for consistent operation under extreme conditions. High-pressure fuel systems are traditionally lubricated with fuel that is compressed and delivered to the combustion chamber. However, lubrication with fuel presents significant challenges [...] Read more.
The performance and durability of high-pressure fuel systems in combustion engines are critical for consistent operation under extreme conditions. High-pressure fuel systems are traditionally lubricated with fuel that is compressed and delivered to the combustion chamber. However, lubrication with fuel presents significant challenges in these systems when used with low-viscosity fuels, leading to increased wear rates, especially in reciprocating contacts. This study delved into the tribological performance of steels of varying alloy content (annealed and hardened variants of AISI-52100, CF2, and D2) against alumina and hard 52100 counterbody materials in ethanol and decane environments. Friction and wear behaviors were evaluated, highlighting the influence of material interactions and environmental factors. Elastohydrodynamic lubrication analysis of the tested systems indicated that ethanol and decane form lubricating films of nanometer-scale thickness, confirming the boundary lubrication regimes of the performed tests. In summary, the tribological behavior trends were similar for alumina and 52100 counterbodies. Even though soft 52100 steel demonstrated low friction, its wear was the largest for both tested environments and counterface materials. Among all the tested materials, hard D2 experienced the lowest wear. 52100 and D2 steels showed opposite friction change behavior when comparing hard and soft samples, with lower friction observed for softer 52100 steel and harder D2 steel. Meanwhile, the wear was lower for harder candidates than for softer ones independent of the environment and counterbody material. Raman spectroscopy analysis of the formed wear tracks indicated the formation of carbon films with larger intensities of characteristic carbon peaks observed for more wear-resistant materials. These results suggest the synergistic effect of hardness and tribochemical activity in reducing the wear of materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in 'Surface Sciences and Technology' Section, 2nd Edition)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Schematic illustration showing reciprocating ball-on-disk sliding experiments in a fuel environment.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Comparison of properties for ethanol and decane at 40 °C.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Central and minimum film thickness values for tests using steel and alumina balls, 10 mm in diameter, reciprocating motion with a maximum speed of 0.628 m/s and a normal load of 10 N. The lubricant is ethanol. Hc means central film thickness and Hmin minimum film thickness.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Central and minimum film thickness values for tests using steel and alumina ball, reciprocating motion with a maximum speed of 0.628 m/s and a normal load of 10 N. The lubricant is decane. Hc means central film thickness and Hmin minimum film thickness.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>(<b>a</b>,<b>c</b>) Coefficient of friction behavior of soft and hard 52100, soft CF2, and soft and hard D2 steel against (<b>a</b>) Alumina counterbody (<b>c</b>) 52100 counterbody under high-frequency reciprocating at the frequency of 20 Hz under 10 N as a function of cycles in ethanol environment. (<b>b</b>,<b>d</b>) Surface morphology of wear tracks and counterface ball surfaces. The scale bar is 200 µm.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>(<b>a</b>,<b>c</b>) Coefficient of friction behavior showing the performance of soft and hard 52100, soft CF2, and soft and hard D2 steel against (<b>a</b>) Alumina counterbody (<b>c</b>) 52100 counterbody under high-frequency reciprocating at the frequency of 20 Hz under 10 N as a function of cycles in decane environment. (<b>b</b>,<b>d</b>) Surface morphology of sliding paths and counterface ball surfaces. The scale bar is 200 µm.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Summary of steady state friction values of soft and hard 52100, soft CF2, and soft and hard D2 steel (<b>a</b>) alumina counterbody and (<b>d</b>) 52100 counterbody under high-frequency reciprocating at a frequency of 20 Hz under 10 N load in ethanol and decane environment. Counter-body (ball) wear rate ((<b>b</b>) alumina counterbody &amp; (<b>e</b>) 52100 counterbody) after sliding the same cycles against soft and hard 52100, soft CF2, and soft and hard D2 steel under ethanol and decane. The flat wear rate of soft and hard 52100, soft CF2, and soft and hard D2 steel against (<b>c</b>) alumina counterbody (<b>f</b>) 52100 counterbody under ethanol and decane environment.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Surface profiles of soft and hard 52100, soft CF2 steel, soft and hard D2 ((<b>a</b>,<b>b</b>) alumina counterbody after sliding in ethanol and decane environment. Surface profiles of soft and hard 52100, soft CF2 steel, soft and hard D2 ((<b>c</b>,<b>d</b>) 52100 counterbody), after sliding in the ethanol and decane environment.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>(<b>a</b>–<b>e</b>) Raman 2D maps for G and D peaks (1 μm lateral resolution) of hard 52100, soft 52100, soft CF2, soft D2 and hard D2 steel wear track in decane against alumina counterbody, (<b>f</b>–<b>j</b>) EDS maps of hard 52100, soft 52100, soft CF2, soft D2 and hard D2 steel wear track in decane against alumina counterbody, (<b>k</b>–<b>o</b>) Raman spectra inside the wear track of hard 52100, soft 52100, soft CF2, soft D2 and hard D2 steel wear track in decane against alumina counterbody.</p> Full article ">
15 pages, 1856 KiB  
Article
Development of Effective Infrared Reflective Coatings
by Józsefné Mara, Attila-Ede Bodnár, László Trif and Judit Telegdi
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(23), 12903; https://doi.org/10.3390/app132312903 - 1 Dec 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3355
Abstract
The adsorption of surfaces exposed to sunlight results in increased temperatures that can cause physical damage and an increase in energy consumption. Infrared reflective coatings can keep objects cooler and have significant benefits in a wide variety of application by reflecting infrared light [...] Read more.
The adsorption of surfaces exposed to sunlight results in increased temperatures that can cause physical damage and an increase in energy consumption. Infrared reflective coatings can keep objects cooler and have significant benefits in a wide variety of application by reflecting infrared light and decreasing heat, reducing operating costs, improving energy efficiency in buildings and vehicles, and extending an objects’ lifespan. The main aim of our research was to develop coatings in a RAL7016 Anthracite grey color with minimum heat adsorption in the infrared wavelength range. This was achieved using a combination of infrared transparent and infrared reflective pigment built-in coatings applied on two primers: white and black. Infrared reflectivity or transparency, as well as surface temperature, was investigated as a function of the composition and concentration of pigments. These coatings were characterized by chromatic parameters, by total solar and infrared solar reflectance in the UV, visible, and infrared wavelength range, and by heat reflection. Among the coatings developed, two produced very effective controls for infrared reflectance and transparency, and they could control heat reflectance, resulting in a significant decrease in surface temperature. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in 'Surface Sciences and Technology' Section, 2nd Edition)
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<p>Colorimetric coordinates, CIE color system L*, a*, b*. L*: represents the differences between light (100%) and dark (0%). a*: displays the difference between red (+a*) and green (−a*). b*: corresponds to the difference between yellow (+b*) and blue (−b*).</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Reflection behavior of different coatings applied on white primer measured in the wavelength range between 335 nm and 2500 nm (FR: coatings developed on white primer; La: Lacquer).</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Reflection behavior of different coatings applied on black primer measured in the wavelength range between 335 nm and 2500 nm (FE: coatings developed on black primer; La: Lacquer).</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Summary of the total solar reflectance and the infrared solar reflectance values measured on the coatings developed according to the ASTM Standard G173-03 (FE: coatings developed on black primer; FR: coatings developed on white primer; La: Lacquer).</p> Full article ">
18 pages, 11141 KiB  
Article
Black PEO Coatings on Titanium and Titanium Alloys Produced at Low Current Densities
by Lorena Kostelac, Luca Pezzato, Elena Colusso, Marta Maria Natile, Katya Brunelli and Manuele Dabalà
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(22), 12280; https://doi.org/10.3390/app132212280 - 13 Nov 2023
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1772
Abstract
Black coatings were successfully formed on Grade 2 (G2) and Grade 5 (G5) titanium alloy by means of a direct-current Plasma Electrolytic Oxidation (PEO) process at a very low current density of 0.05 A/cm2. The impact of two different treatment times [...] Read more.
Black coatings were successfully formed on Grade 2 (G2) and Grade 5 (G5) titanium alloy by means of a direct-current Plasma Electrolytic Oxidation (PEO) process at a very low current density of 0.05 A/cm2. The impact of two different treatment times (30 min and 60 min) was examined. The electrolyte for the PEO process was a phosphate base solution Na5P3O10 containing FeSO4 and (NH4)6Mo7O24 as coloring additives. PEO-coated samples were subjected to optical, morphological, structural, chemical, and electrochemical characterization. XRD, EDS, and XPS data analyses revealed that anion MoO42− and metal cation Fe3+ were successfully incorporated into the coatings. The results demonstrated that PEO-coated samples prepared after 60 min exhibit a stronger black color than those created after 30 min, with an absorptance maximum of 0.86. Furthermore, all prepared PEO coatings improve the corrosion resistance of bare titanium. Among them, the 60-minute PEO coatings on both alloys were the ones with the best corrosion properties. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in 'Surface Sciences and Technology' Section, 2nd Edition)
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<p>Stereo microscope images of PEO-coated samples on two different titanium alloys and with two different PEO treatment times: (<b>a</b>) G2-30, (<b>b</b>) G2-60, (<b>c</b>) G5-30, and (<b>d</b>) G5-60.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Reflectance spectra of PEO-coated samples.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Surface SEM micrographs of black PEO coatings of the sample: (<b>a</b>) G2-30, (<b>b</b>) G2-60, (<b>c</b>) G5-30, and (<b>d</b>) G5-60.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Cross-section SEM micrographs of black PEO coatings of the sample: (<b>a</b>) G2-30, (<b>b</b>) G2-60, (<b>c</b>) G5-30, and (<b>d</b>) G5-60.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>XRD patterns of PEO-coated samples: G2-30, G2-60, G5-30, and G5-60.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>XPS peaks of PEO coatings formed at 30 and 60 min: XPS core levels of Ti 2p, Mo 3d, Fe 2p, P 2p, and O 1s are shown. (Black is used for the sample G2-30, gray for the sample G2-60, dark blue for the sample G5-30 and light blue for the sample G5-60).</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Potentiodynamic polarization (PDP) curves of the PEO-coated samples and as-received titanium alloys: (<b>a</b>) G2 and (<b>b</b>) G5 at the 3.5% NaCl.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Results of the EIS tests in the form of Bode Modulus plots (impedance vs. frequency (Zmod vs. Freq)) and Bode Phase plots (phase vs. frequency (Zphz vs. Freq)) for the (<b>a</b>) PEO-coated samples on the G2 titanium alloy and the G2 titanium alloy without the coating; (<b>b</b>) PEO-coated samples on the G5 titanium alloy and the G5 titanium alloy without the coating.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Results of the EIS tests in the form of Nyquist plots (impedance vs. frequency (−Zimag vs. Zreal)) for the: (<b>a</b>) PEO-coated samples on the G2 titanium alloy and the G2 titanium alloy without the coating; (<b>b</b>) PEO-coated samples on the G5 titanium alloy and the G5 titanium alloy without the coating.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Results of the EIS tests in the form of (<b>a</b>) Bode Modulus plot (impedance vs. frequency (Zmod vs. Freq)) and (<b>b</b>) Nyquist plot (impedance vs. frequency (−Zimag vs. Zreal)) for the PEO-coated samples on the G2 titanium alloy and the G5 titanium alloy.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Equivalent electrical circuits employed to fit the EIS data, (<b>a</b>) simple Randles circuit <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi> </msub> <mi>C</mi> <mi>P</mi> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">o</mi> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math>); (<b>b</b>) dual-circuit <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">s</mi> </msub> <mfenced> <mrow> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">p</mi> </msub> <mi>C</mi> <mi>P</mi> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">p</mi> </msub> <mfenced> <mrow> <msub> <mi>R</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">b</mi> </msub> <mi>C</mi> <mi>P</mi> <msub> <mi>E</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">b</mi> </msub> </mrow> </mfenced> </mrow> </mfenced> </mrow> </semantics></math>.</p> Full article ">

Review

Jump to: Research

15 pages, 8889 KiB  
Review
Hybrid Colloids Made with Polymers
by Camillo La Mesa
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(12), 5135; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14125135 - 13 Jun 2024
Viewed by 811
Abstract
Polymers adsorb onto nanoparticles, NPs, by different mechanisms. Thus, they reduce coagulation, avoid undesired phase separation or clustering, and give rise to hybrid colloids. These find uses in many applications. In cases of noncovalent interactions, polymers adsorb onto nanoparticles, which protrude from [...] Read more.
Polymers adsorb onto nanoparticles, NPs, by different mechanisms. Thus, they reduce coagulation, avoid undesired phase separation or clustering, and give rise to hybrid colloids. These find uses in many applications. In cases of noncovalent interactions, polymers adsorb onto nanoparticles, which protrude from their surface; the polymer in excess remains in the medium. In covalent mode, conversely, polymers form permanent links with functional groups facing outward from the NPs’ surface. Polymers in contact with the solvent minimize attractive interactions among the NPs. Many contributions stabilize such adducts: the NP–polymer, polymer–polymer, and polymer–solvent interaction modes are the most relevant. Changes in the degrees of freedom of surface-bound polymer portions control the stability of the adducts they form with NPs. Wrapped, free, and protruding polymer parts favor depletion and control the adducts’ properties if surface adsorption is undesired. The binding of surfactants onto NPs takes place too, but their stabilizing effect is much less effective than the one due to polymers. The underlying reason for this is that surfactants easily adsorb onto surfaces, but they desorb if the resulting adducts are not properly stabilized. Polymers interact with surfactants, both when the latter are in molecular or associated forms. The interactions occur between polymers and ionic surfactants or amphiphiles associated with vesicular entities. Hybrids obtained in these ways differ each from each other. The mechanisms governing hybrid formation are manifold and span from being purely electrostatic to other modes. The adducts that do form are quite diverse in their sizes, shapes, and features, and depend significantly on composition and mole ratios. Simple approaches clarify the interactions among different particle types that yield hybrids. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in 'Surface Sciences and Technology' Section, 2nd Edition)
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<p>Scheme indicating the location of hybrids in a plane whose apexes represent pure polymers, pure surfactants, and pure nanoparticles. Hybrids are formed by two or more components in proper ratios. Their location occupies the whole yellow area, whereas the arrows on the outer part of the triangle indicate binary hybrids.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Pseudo-binary phase map of a polymer–surfactant system in dilute concentration regimes. The red dotted line indicates the critical association concentration threshold, or <span class="html-italic">cac</span>, above which interactions among polymer and molecular surfactant start to occur. The blue line, or <span class="html-italic">cmc*</span>, indicates free micelles onset when polymer binding sites are surfactant-saturated. The two lines intersect at the <span class="html-italic">cmc</span> of the pure surfactant. The green line indicates a series of complexes, <span class="html-italic">PSC</span>s, occurring at fixed polymer content. Polymer in the map is nonionic, the surfactant anionic.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Surface tension, <span class="html-italic">γ</span> (in mN m<sup>−1</sup>), vs. log <span class="html-italic">m</span> plot for an anionic surfactant in H<sub>2</sub>O—1.0 wt% <span class="html-italic">PEO</span> pseudo-solvent (nominal PEO mass = 20 kD), at 25.0 °C. The lower inflection point is termed <span class="html-italic">cac</span> (critical association concentration), the higher one is the <span class="html-italic">cmc*</span> (critical micellar concentration in presence of polymer).</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>The hydrodynamic radii of cat-anionic <span class="html-italic">DDAB-SDS</span> vesicles, &lt;<span class="html-italic">R<sub>H</sub></span>&gt; (in nm), interacting with <span class="html-italic">BSA</span> (bovine serum albumin) at <span class="html-italic">pH</span> = 6.8 and 25.0 °C. The term <span class="html-italic">DDAB</span> indicates didodecyldimethylammonium bromide, and <span class="html-italic">SDS</span> is an acronym of sodium dodecylsulfate. The <span class="html-italic">DDAB-SDS</span> mole ratio is 3.8/1, when the overall surfactant content is 10.0 mmol kg<sup>−1</sup>. Similar trends were observed if <span class="html-italic">pH</span> is above the protein iso-electric point (and the protein, thus, negatively charged). The region drawn in yellow is turbid and polyphasic; it indicates the coexistence of very large adducts (some microns) and a precipitate. Symbols are larger than experimental errors. The figure is redrawn from Ref. [<a href="#B42-applsci-14-05135" class="html-bibr">42</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Sketch of interparticle interaction modes. The repulsive one (implying stabilization) is reported above. Snakes facing outward from the two Medusa heads indicate surface-bound polymers and imply repulsion. Medusa’s head is an oil on oak board of Michelangelo Merisi, Caravaggio. The board is in the Uffizi Museum, Florence, IT. The attractive mode is drawn below.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>The normalized binding probability function, <span class="html-italic">P(ω)<sub>i</sub></span>/P<sub>tot</sub>, vs. the polymer chain length, <span class="html-italic">l<sub>i</sub>.</span> The curve was calculated at 25.0 °C for a number of segments = 50. More details are in Ref. [<a href="#B59-applsci-14-05135" class="html-bibr">59</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Polymer chemical potential, <span class="html-italic">μ</span><sub>PEO</sub>, in RT units, vs. its volume fraction at 25.0 °C. Data refer to 20 kD <span class="html-italic">PEO</span> chains adsorbing on 1.0 wt% aqueous <span class="html-italic">SiO</span><sub>2</sub> dispersion. The chemical potential was calculated from changes in the osmotic pressure.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Appearance of 220 nm <span class="html-italic">SiO</span><sub>2</sub> <span class="html-italic">NP</span>s onto which an <span class="html-italic">HM</span>–<span class="html-italic">PMMA</span>-based polymer is adsorbed. Particles are deposited onto glass. On the right hand side are reported bare particles. The bar size, on the bottom right, is 250 nm long. The figure is redrawn from Ref. [<a href="#B69-applsci-14-05135" class="html-bibr">69</a>].</p> Full article ">
29 pages, 1609 KiB  
Review
Recent Advances in Bio-Based Wood Protective Systems: A Comprehensive Review
by Massimo Calovi, Alessia Zanardi and Stefano Rossi
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(2), 736; https://doi.org/10.3390/app14020736 - 15 Jan 2024
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4313
Abstract
This review emphasizes the recent ongoing shift in the wood coating industry towards bio-based resources and circular economy principles, promoting eco-friendly alternatives. In addressing wood’s vulnerabilities, this study investigates the use of natural compounds and biopolymers to enhance wood coatings. These materials contribute [...] Read more.
This review emphasizes the recent ongoing shift in the wood coating industry towards bio-based resources and circular economy principles, promoting eco-friendly alternatives. In addressing wood’s vulnerabilities, this study investigates the use of natural compounds and biopolymers to enhance wood coatings. These materials contribute to protective matrices that safeguard wood surfaces against diverse challenges. Essential oils, vegetable oils, and bio-based polymers are explored for their potential in crafting eco-friendly and durable coating matrices. Furthermore, this review covers efforts to counter weathering and biological decay through the application of various natural compounds and extracts. It evaluates the effectiveness of different bio-based alternatives to traditional chemical preservatives and highlights promising candidates. This review also delves into the incorporation of sustainable pigments and dyes into wood coatings to enhance both protective and aesthetic qualities. Innovative pigments are able to provide visually appealing solutions in line with sustainability principles. As the wood coating industry embraces bio-based resources and the circular economy, researchers are actively developing protective solutions that encompass the coating matrix, preservatives, bio-based fillers, and natural-pigment dyes. This review showcases the continuous efforts of academia and industry to enhance wood coatings’ effectiveness, durability, and sustainability, while maintaining their aesthetic appeal. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in 'Surface Sciences and Technology' Section, 2nd Edition)
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<p>Graphical illustration of the bio-based materials employed in wood protective systems.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>SEM micrographs of untreated wood (<b>left</b>) and of the wood after treatment with tung oil (<b>right</b>) [<a href="#B49-applsci-14-00736" class="html-bibr">49</a>]. From Industrial Crops and Products, 140, Z. He, J. Qian, L. Qu, N. Yan, S. Yi, Effects of Tung oil treatment on wood hygroscopicity, dimensional stability and thermostability, 111647, Copyright (2019), with permission from Elsevier.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Illustration of the functionality of bio-based fillers in wood protective systems.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Appearance of the coatings containing spirulina-based pigment and carnauba wax filler [<a href="#B41-applsci-14-00736" class="html-bibr">41</a>]. Modified from Progress in Organic Coatings, 182, M. Calovi, S. Rossi, Synergistic contribution of bio-based additives in wood paint: The combined effect of pigment deriving from spirulina and multifunctional filler based on carnauba wax, 107713, Copyright (2023), with permission from Elsevier.</p> Full article ">
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