[go: up one dir, main page]
More Web Proxy on the site http://driver.im/
You seem to have javascript disabled. Please note that many of the page functionalities won't work as expected without javascript enabled.
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
4.5
3.9
Journals
Toxics
Special Issues
Microplastics in Aquatic Environments: Occurrence, Distribution and Effects
share announcement

Microplastics in Aquatic Environments: Occurrence, Distribution and Effects

A special issue of Toxics (ISSN 2305-6304). This special issue belongs to the section "Emerging Contaminants".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 May 2022) | Viewed by 71794

Printed Edition Available!
A printed edition of this Special Issue is available here.

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Costanza Scopetani

E-Mail
Guest Editor
Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Ecosystems and Environment Research programme, Niemenkatu 73, Lahti; FIN-15140, University of Helsinki, Finland
Interests: analytical chemistry; environmental analysis; environmental chemistry; emerging contaminants; microplastics; nanoplastics
Dr. Tania Martellini

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Chemistry "Ugo Schiff", University of Florence, Sesto F.no, 50019 Florence, Italy
Interests: environmental chemistry; POPs (persistent organic pollutants); emerging pollutants; risk assessment of POPs; remote area; indoor air quality (IAQ); aerosol; long-range transport; distribution and fate of contaminants; source apportionment; microplastics; house dust; gas-particle partitioning; flame retardants; pesticides; GC-MS; HPLC; elementar analysis; levoglucosan and biomass burning sources
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Diana Campos

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
CESAM – Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies, Department of Biology, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
Interests: micro (nano) plastics; ecotoxicology; aquatic ecosystems; aquatic invertebrates; multigeneration; mesocosms; food webs; biomarke

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The large production and widespread daily consumption of plastic materials, which began in the last century, coupled with often-inadequate collection and recycling systems, have made plastics and, consequently, microplastics ubiquitous pollutants.

The scientific community is increasingly showing its concern about microplastic pollution and the possible effects on the biota and environment. Aquatic ecosystems, such as rivers, lakes, seas and oceans, seem to act as major sinks for plastics and microplastics. Microplastic pollution is so widespread that we might assume no aquatic environment has been left untouched. Despite it having been more than a decade since the scientific community started to focus on microplastics, and despite a large number of peer-reviewed papers published on this research topic, there are still several gaps that need to be filled. The lack of method harmonization for sampling, treating and analyzing samples hampers the comparability of the studies conducted to date. Furthermore, microplastics’ effects on biota and humans are still poorly understood. Another important and little-investigated aspect is the distribution and potential effects on the environment of the so-called "bioplastics" or “biobased materials” that are replacing traditional plastics in some sectors but that also have critical issues.

This Toxics Special Issue welcomes any novel studies focusing on microplastics in aquatic environments, their occurrence and distribution, and the effects they might have on the environment and the biota. Research examining the sources of plastic pollution in aquatic ecosystems, current and future methodologies for microplastic sampling and analysis, and the ecological risks posed by microplastics are also welcome.

Dr. Costanza Scopetani
Dr. Tania Martellini
Dr. Diana Campos
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Toxics is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • microplastics
  • bioplastics
  • aquatic ecosystems
  • microplastics effect assessment
  • microplastics and risk assessment
  • microplastic methodologies
  • plastic pollution
  • analytical methods harmonization
  • quality control

Benefits of Publishing in a Special Issue

  • Ease of navigation: Grouping papers by topic helps scholars navigate broad scope journals more efficiently.
  • Greater discoverability: Special Issues support the reach and impact of scientific research. Articles in Special Issues are more discoverable and cited more frequently.
  • Expansion of research network: Special Issues facilitate connections among authors, fostering scientific collaborations.
  • External promotion: Articles in Special Issues are often promoted through the journal's social media, increasing their visibility.
  • e-Book format: Special Issues with more than 10 articles can be published as dedicated e-books, ensuring wide and rapid dissemination.

Further information on MDPI's Special Issue polices can be found here.

Published Papers (12 papers)

Download All Papers
Order results
Result details
Show export options expand_more Show export options expand_less
Select all
Export citation of selected articles as:

Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

4 pages, 205 KiB  
Editorial
Editorial for the Special Issue “Microplastics in Aquatic Environments: Occurrence, Distribution and Effects”
by Costanza Scopetani, Tania Martellini and Diana Campos
Toxics 2022, 10(7), 407; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10070407 - 21 Jul 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1836
Abstract
The large production and widespread daily consumption of plastic materials—which began in the last century—together with the often-inadequate collection and recycling systems, have made plastics and, consequently, microplastics (MPs) ubiquitous pollutants [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microplastics in Aquatic Environments: Occurrence, Distribution and Effects)

Research

Jump to: Editorial, Review

16 pages, 3017 KiB  
Article
Occurrence and Characterization of Small Microplastics (<100 μm), Additives, and Plasticizers in Larvae of Simuliidae
by Fabiana Corami, Beatrice Rosso, Valentina Iannilli, Simone Ciadamidaro, Barbara Bravo and Carlo Barbante
Toxics 2022, 10(7), 383; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10070383 - 10 Jul 2022
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 5138
Abstract
This study is the first to investigate the ingestion of microplastics (MPs), plasticizers, additives, and particles of micro-litter < 100 μm by larvae of Simuliidae (Diptera) in rivers. Blackflies belong to a small cosmopolitan insect family whose larvae are present alongside river courses, [...] Read more.
This study is the first to investigate the ingestion of microplastics (MPs), plasticizers, additives, and particles of micro-litter < 100 μm by larvae of Simuliidae (Diptera) in rivers. Blackflies belong to a small cosmopolitan insect family whose larvae are present alongside river courses, often with a torrential regime, up to their mouths. Specimens of two species of blackfly larvae, Simulium equinum and Simulium ornatum, were collected in two rivers in Central Italy, the Mignone and the Treja. Small microplastics (SMPs, <100 μm), plasticizers, additives, and other micro-litter components, e.g., natural and non-plastic synthetic fibers (APFs) ingested by blackfly larvae were, for the first time, quantified and concurrently identified via MicroFTIR. The pretreatment allowed for simultaneous extraction of the ingested SMPs and APFs. Strong acids or strong oxidizing reagents and the application of temperatures well above the glass transition temperature of polyamide 6 and 6.6 (55–60 °C) were not employed to avoid further denaturation/degradation of polymers and underestimating the quantification. Reagent and procedural blanks did not show any SMPs or APFs. The method’s yield was >90%. Differences in the abundances of the SMPs and APFs ingested by the two species under exam were statistically significant. Additives and plasticizers can be specific to a particular polymer; thus, these compounds can be proxies for the presence of plastic polymers in the environment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microplastics in Aquatic Environments: Occurrence, Distribution and Effects)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Sampling sites where blackfly larvae (Simuliidae) were collected; the Mignone and Treja rivers are located near Rome, in Lazio, Italy.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>The average abundance of SMPs per organism in the two species of blackfly larvae under examination, <span class="html-italic">Simulium equinum</span> and <span class="html-italic">Simulium ornatum</span> (20 organisms per species for each sampling site were analyzed). The fiducial interval according to Poisson’s distribution is reported for each species in the sampling sites studied. The distribution of polymers ingested is shown as well. Complete names of the polymers can be found in <a href="#toxics-10-00383-t001" class="html-table">Table 1</a>.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Weight of ingested SMPs (ng SMPs/organism) by <span class="html-italic">S. equinum</span> and <span class="html-italic">S. ornatum</span> collected in the Treja and Mignone rivers.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Aspect ratio (AR) of the polymers identified and quantified in specimens of <span class="html-italic">S. ornatum</span> (<b>a</b>,<b>c</b>) and <span class="html-italic">S. equinum</span> (<b>b</b>,<b>d</b>) under examination. The number of the spheroid, ellipsoid, and cylinder particle shapes is reported for the average abundance of each polymer identified and quantified via microscopic counting.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>The average abundance of APFs per organism in the two species of blackfly larvae under exam, <span class="html-italic">Simulium equinum</span> and <span class="html-italic">Simulium ornatum</span> (20 organisms per species for each sampling site was analyzed). The distribution of ingested additives, plasticizers, and other microlitter components is also shown. Rayon is a non-plastic synthetic fiber, which is preeminent in all the specimens studied. Simuliidae can ingest larger particles if compressible; some rayon fragments in <span class="html-italic">S. ornatum</span> in the Mignone River were &gt;150 μm in length. The fiducial interval according to Poisson’s distribution is reported for each species in the sampling sites studied.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Weight of ingested APFs (ng APFs/organism) by <span class="html-italic">S. equinum</span> and <span class="html-italic">S. ornatum</span> collected in the Treja and Mignone rivers.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Aspect ratio (AR) of the APFs identified and quantified in specimens of <span class="html-italic">S. equinum</span> (<b>a</b>,<b>c</b>) and <span class="html-italic">S. ornatum</span> (<b>b</b>,<b>d</b>) under examination. The number of the spheroid, ellipsoid, and cylinder particle shapes is reported for the average abundance of each particle identified and quantified via microscopic counting.</p> Full article ">
14 pages, 5385 KiB  
Article
Size Effects of Microplastics on Embryos and Observation of Toxicity Kinetics in Larvae of Grass Carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella)
by Chaonan Zhang, Zhiheng Zuo, Qiujie Wang, Shaodan Wang, Liqun Lv and Jixing Zou
Toxics 2022, 10(2), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10020076 - 7 Feb 2022
Cited by 22 | Viewed by 3578
Abstract
Microplastics have caused great concern in recent years. However, few studies have compared the toxicity of different sizes of microplastics in fishes, especially commercial fishes, which are more related to human health. In the present study, we revealed the effects of varying sizes [...] Read more.
Microplastics have caused great concern in recent years. However, few studies have compared the toxicity of different sizes of microplastics in fishes, especially commercial fishes, which are more related to human health. In the present study, we revealed the effects of varying sizes of microplastics on grass carp embryos and larvae using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and fluorescence imaging. Embryos were exposed to 80 nm and 8 μm microplastics at concentrations of 5, 15, and 45 mg/L. Toxicity kinetics of various sizes of fluorescent microplastics were analyzed through microscopic observation in the larvae. Results found that nanoplastics could not penetrate the embryo’s chorionic membrane, instead they conglutinated or aggregated on the chorion. Our results are the first to explore the defense mechanisms of commercial fish embryos against microplastics. Larvae were prone to ingesting their own excrement, resulting in microplastic flocculants winding around their mouth. For the first time, it was found that excreted microplastics could be reconsumed by fish and reaccumulated in the oral cavity. Microplastics of a certain size (1 μm) could be accumulated in the nasal cavity. We speculate that the presence of a special groove structure in the nasal cavity of grass carp larvae may manage to seize the microplastics with a particular size. As far as we know, this is the first report of microplastics being found in the nasal passages of fish. Fluorescence images clearly recorded the toxicity kinetics of microplastics in herbivorous fish. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microplastics in Aquatic Environments: Occurrence, Distribution and Effects)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>High-definition enlarged images of chorion membranes of grass carp. (<b>A</b>–<b>D</b>) show different parts of chorion membranes.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>SEM images of the out-membrane surface of grass carp embryo after exposed to 80 nm microplastics. (<b>A</b>–<b>C</b>) show different status of microplastics on membranes. (<b>D</b>) is a larger version of (<b>C</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>The pore structures of the out-membrane surface of grass carp embryo after exposed to microplastics. (<b>A</b>–<b>C</b>) show different pore structures. (<b>D</b>) is a larger version of (<b>C</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>The larvae of grass carp after exposure to 5 μm green fluorescent microplastics. Photographs were taken under a brightfield microscope (capital letters <b>A</b>–<b>H</b>) and green fluorescent microscope (lowercase letters <b>a</b>–<b>h</b>). Observation time was labeled in the figure. Scale bar = 2 mm.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>The larvae of grass carp after exposure to 5 μm red fluorescent microplastics. Photographs were taken under a brightfield microscope (capital letters <b>A</b>–<b>H</b>) and red fluorescent microscope (lowercase letters <b>a</b>–<b>h</b>). Observation time was labeled in the figure. Scale bar = 2 mm.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>The larvae of grass carp after exposure to 1 μm orange fluorescent microplastics. Photographs were taken under a brightfield microscope (capital letters <b>A</b>–<b>H</b>) and red fluorescent microscope (lowercase letters <b>a</b>–<b>h</b>). Observation time was labeled in the figure. Scale bar = 2 mm.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>The larvae of grass carp after exposure to 1 μm red fluorescent microplastics. Photographs were taken under a brightfield microscope (capital letters <b>A</b>,<b>B</b>) and red fluorescent microscope (lowercase letters <b>a</b>,<b>b</b>). <b>B/b</b> is a larger version of <b>A/a</b>. Scale bar = 0.5 mm.</p> Full article ">
20 pages, 1226 KiB  
Article
Co-Exposure with an Invasive Seaweed Exudate Increases Toxicity of Polyamide Microplastics in the Marine Mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis
by Filipa G. Rodrigues, Hugo C. Vieira, Diana Campos, Sílvia F. S. Pires, Andreia C. M. Rodrigues, Ana L. P. Silva, Amadeu M. V. M. Soares, Jacinta M. M. Oliveira and Maria D. Bordalo
Toxics 2022, 10(2), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10020043 - 18 Jan 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4665
Abstract
Plastic pollution and invasive species are recognised as pervasive threats to marine biodiversity. However, despite the extensive on-going research on microplastics’ effects in the biota, knowledge on their combination with additional stressors is still limited. This study investigates the effects of polyamide microplastics [...] Read more.
Plastic pollution and invasive species are recognised as pervasive threats to marine biodiversity. However, despite the extensive on-going research on microplastics’ effects in the biota, knowledge on their combination with additional stressors is still limited. This study investigates the effects of polyamide microplastics (PA-MPs, 1 mg/L), alone and in combination with the toxic exudate from the invasive red seaweed Asparagopsis armata (2%), after a 96 h exposure, in the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis. Biochemical responses associated with oxidative stress and damage, neurotoxicity, and energy metabolism were evaluated in different tissues (gills, digestive gland, and muscle). Byssus production and PA-MP accumulation were also assessed. Results demonstrated that PA-MPs accumulated the most in the digestive gland of mussels under PA-MP and exudate co-exposure. Furthermore, the combination of stressors also resulted in oxidative damage at the protein level in the gills as well as in a significant reduction in byssus production. Metabolic capacity increased in both PA-MP treatments, consequently affecting the energy balance in mussels under combined stress. Overall, results show a potential increase of PA-MPs toxicity in the presence of A. armata exudate, highlighting the importance of assessing the impact of microplastics in realistic scenarios, specifically in combination with co-occurring stressors, such as invasive species. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microplastics in Aquatic Environments: Occurrence, Distribution and Effects)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Oxidative stress-related biomarkers of <span class="html-italic">Mytilus galloprovincialis</span> gills after 96 h of exposure to <span class="html-italic">A. armata</span> exudate (0% and 2%) at different polyamide microplastic (PA-MPs) concentrations (0 and 1 mg/L). (<b>a</b>) Catalase activity (CAT), (<b>b</b>) glutathione-<span class="html-italic">S</span>-transferase activity (GST), (<b>c</b>) total glutathione contents (tGSH), (<b>d</b>) protein carbonylation levels (PC), (<b>e</b>) lipid peroxidation (LPO), and (<b>f</b>) acetylcholinesterase activity (AChE). All values are presented as mean ± SEM. * denotes a significant difference between the 0% and 2% <span class="html-italic">A. armata</span> exudate in the same PA-MPs concentration. The upper-case letters indicate differences in the 0% exudate treatments and the different lower-case letters represent differences in the 2% exudate treatments at the different PA-MPs concentrations.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Oxidative stress-related biomarkers of <span class="html-italic">Mytilus galloprovincialis</span> digestive gland after 96 h of exposure to <span class="html-italic">A. armata</span> exudate (0% and 2%) at different polyamide microplastic (PA-MPs) concentrations (0 and 1 mg/L). (<b>a</b>) Catalase activity (CAT), (<b>b</b>) glutathione-<span class="html-italic">S</span>-transferase activity (GST), (<b>c</b>) total glutathione contents (tGSH), (<b>d</b>) protein carbonylation levels (PC), (<b>e</b>) lipid peroxidation (LPO), and (<b>f</b>) acetylcholinesterase activity (AChE). All values are presented as mean ± SEM. The upper-case letters indicate differences in the 0% exudate treatments, and the different lower-case letters represent differences in the 2% exudate treatments at the different PA-MPs concentrations.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Oxidative stress-related biomarkers of <span class="html-italic">Mytilus galloprovincialis</span> muscles after 96 h of exposure to <span class="html-italic">A. armata</span> exudate (0% and 2%) at different polyamide microplastic (PA-MPs) concentrations (0 and 1 mg/L). (<b>a</b>) Lipid peroxidation (LPO), (<b>b</b>) protein carbonylation levels (PC), and (<b>c</b>) acetylcholinesterase activity (AChE). All values are presented as mean ± SEM.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Energy metabolism biomarkers of <span class="html-italic">Mytilus galloprovincialis</span> muscles after 96 h of exposure to <span class="html-italic">A. armata</span> exudate (0% and 2%) at different polyamide microplastic concentrations (0 and 1 mg/L). (<b>a</b>) Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), (<b>b</b>) lipid contents (E<sub>lipids</sub>), (<b>c</b>) protein contents (E<sub>proteins</sub>), (<b>d</b>) sugar content (E<sub>sugars</sub>), (<b>e</b>) electron transport system, (<b>f</b>) energy available (Ea), and (<b>g</b>) cellular energy allocation (CEA). All values are presented as mean ± SEM. * denotes a significant difference between the 0% and 2% <span class="html-italic">A. armata</span> exudate in the same PA-MPs concentration. The upper-case letters indicate differences in the 0% exudate treatments and the different lower-case letters represent differences in the 2% exudate treatments at the different PA-MPs concentrations.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Number of produced byssal threads by <span class="html-italic">Mytilus galloprovincialis</span> during the 96 h exposure to different treatments: (i) control (0%; 0 mg/L); (ii) <span class="html-italic">A. armata</span> exudate (2%); (iii) PA-MPs (1 mg/L); and (iv) <span class="html-italic">A. armata</span> exudate (2%) and PA-MPs (1 mg/L). All values are presented as mean ± SEM. * denotes a significant difference compared with the control treatment.</p> Full article ">
23 pages, 3906 KiB  
Article
Accumulation, Depuration, and Biological Effects of Polystyrene Microplastic Spheres and Adsorbed Cadmium and Benzo(a)pyrene on the Mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis
by Rebecca von Hellfeld, María Zarzuelo, Beñat Zaldibar, Miren P. Cajaraville and Amaia Orbea
Toxics 2022, 10(1), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10010018 - 5 Jan 2022
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 4288
Abstract
Filter feeders are target species for microplastic (MP) pollution, as particles can accumulate in the digestive system, disturbing feeding processes and becoming internalized in tissues. MPs may also carry pathogens or pollutants present in the environment. This work assessed the influence of polystyrene [...] Read more.
Filter feeders are target species for microplastic (MP) pollution, as particles can accumulate in the digestive system, disturbing feeding processes and becoming internalized in tissues. MPs may also carry pathogens or pollutants present in the environment. This work assessed the influence of polystyrene (PS) MP size and concentration on accumulation and depuration time and the role of MPs as vectors for metallic (Cd) and organic (benzo(a)pyrene, BaP) pollutants. One-day exposure to pristine MPs induced a concentration-dependent accumulation in the digestive gland (in the stomach and duct lumen), and after 3-day depuration, 45 µm MPs appeared between gill filaments, while 4.5 µm MPs also occurred within gill filaments. After 3-day exposure to contaminated 4.5 µm MPs, mussels showed increased BaP levels whilst Cd accumulation did not occur. Here, PS showed higher affinity to BaP than to Cd. Three-day exposure to pristine or contaminated MPs did not provoke significant alterations in antioxidant and peroxisomal enzyme activities in the gills and digestive gland nor in lysosomal membrane stability. Exposure to dissolved contaminants and to MP-BaP caused histological alterations in the digestive gland. In conclusion, these short-term studies suggest that MPs are ingested and internalized in a size-dependent manner and act as carriers of the persistent organic pollutant BaP. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microplastics in Aquatic Environments: Occurrence, Distribution and Effects)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

Graphical abstract
Full article ">Figure 1
<p>Micrographs of H&amp;E-stained sections of digestive gland and gills of mussels after 1 day of exposure to pristine 45 µm MPs. (<b>A</b>) MPs in the lumen of the stomach after exposure to 100 particles/mL; (<b>B</b>) MPs in the lumen of a duct after exposure to 1000 particles/mL; (<b>C</b>) MPs in the connective tissue after exposure to 1000 particles/mL; (<b>D</b>) MPs outside a gill filament after exposure to 100 particles/mL. Black arrows point to MP particles. Scale bars: (<b>A</b>) 200 µm, (<b>B</b>) 50 µm, (<b>C</b>,<b>D</b>) 100 µm.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Micrographs of H&amp;E-stained sections of digestive gland and gills of mussels after 3-day exposure to 1000 particles/mL pristine and contaminated 4.5 µm MPs. (<b>A</b>) MP in the stomach epithelium after exposure to pristine particles; (<b>B</b>) MP in the connective tissue surrounding the digestive tubules after exposure to pristine particles; (<b>C</b>) MP in the lumen of a digestive tubule after exposure to pristine particles; (<b>D</b>) MP in the lumen of a digestive tubule after exposure to MP-BaP; (<b>E</b>) MP over a gill filament after exposure to MP-BaP; (<b>F</b>) MP inside a gill filament after exposure to MP-Cd. Black arrows point to MP particles. Scale bars: 50 µm.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Activity of the antioxidant enzymes catalase in the digestive gland (<b>A</b>) and gills (<b>B</b>), superoxide dismutase in the digestive gland (<b>C</b>) and gills (<b>D</b>), and activity of acyl-CoA oxidase in the digestive gland (<b>E</b>) of mussels, presented as mean ± standard deviation (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 6). Different letters indicate statistically significant differences (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05) according to the Tukey’s post hoc test after one-way ANOVA.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Labilization period (LP) of the digestive cell lysosomes. Mean ± standard deviation (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 10). Statistically significant differences were not found according to the Kruskal–Wallis test (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05).</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Micrographs of the gills (<b>A</b>) and digestive gland (<b>B</b>–<b>F</b>) of mussels after autometallographical staining. (<b>A</b>) Mussel exposed to 1 µM Cd for 3 days; (<b>B</b>) control mussel; (<b>C</b>) mussel exposed to 1000 particles/mL 4.5 µm MP-Cd for 3 days; (<b>D</b>) mussel exposed to 1 µM Cd for 3 days; (<b>E</b>) mussel exposed to 1000 particles/mL 4.5 µm MP-BaP for 3 days; (<b>F</b>) mussel exposed to 1 µM BaP for 3 days. Black silver deposits indicate the presence of metals in the gill cells (black arrows in <b>A</b>), in the digestive tissue (black arrows in <b>B</b>–<b>F</b>) and haemocytes (white triangle in <b>D</b>). Scale bars: 50 µm.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Results of the quantitative analysis of the autometallographical staining of the digestive gland. Mean ± standard deviation (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 7–10). Different letters indicate statistically significant differences (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05), according to the Dunn’s post hoc test after performing a one-way Kruskal–Wallis test.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Results of the quantitative histological analysis of the structure of the digestive gland. (<b>A</b>) Volume density of basophilic cells; (<b>B</b>) connective-to-diverticula ratio; (<b>C</b>) mean luminal radius to mean epithelium thickness; (<b>D</b>) mean epithelium thickness to mean diverticular radius. Mean ± standard deviation (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 10). Different letters indicate statistically significant differences (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05) according to the Tukey’s post hoc test after one-way ANOVA.</p> Full article ">
13 pages, 697 KiB  
Article
Variable Fitness Response of Two Rotifer Species Exposed to Microplastics Particles: The Role of Food Quantity and Quality
by Claudia Drago and Guntram Weithoff
Toxics 2021, 9(11), 305; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics9110305 - 13 Nov 2021
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2895
Abstract
Plastic pollution is an increasing environmental problem, but a comprehensive understanding of its effect in the environment is still missing. The wide variety of size, shape, and polymer composition of plastics impedes an adequate risk assessment. We investigated the effect of differently sized [...] Read more.
Plastic pollution is an increasing environmental problem, but a comprehensive understanding of its effect in the environment is still missing. The wide variety of size, shape, and polymer composition of plastics impedes an adequate risk assessment. We investigated the effect of differently sized polystyrene beads (1-, 3-, 6-µm; PS) and polyamide fragments (5–25 µm, PA) and non-plastics items such as silica beads (3-µm, SiO2) on the population growth, reproduction (egg ratio), and survival of two common aquatic micro invertebrates: the rotifer species Brachionus calyciflorus and Brachionus fernandoi. The MPs were combined with food quantity, limiting and saturating food concentration, and with food of different quality. We found variable fitness responses with a significant effect of 3-µm PS on the population growth rate in both rotifer species with respect to food quantity. An interaction between the food quality and the MPs treatments was found in the reproduction of B. calyciflorus. PA and SiO2 beads had no effect on fitness response. This study provides further evidence of the indirect effect of MPs in planktonic rotifers and the importance of testing different environmental conditions that could influence the effect of MPs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microplastics in Aquatic Environments: Occurrence, Distribution and Effects)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Intensity of food reduction (Δ<span class="html-italic">r</span> ± 95% confidence interval (CI)) of the rotifer <span class="html-italic">B. calyciflorus</span> and <span class="html-italic">B. fernandoi</span> at high and low food concentrations; (<b>A</b>–<b>C</b>) the red circles refer to the experiment with <span class="html-italic">B. calyciflorus</span> and the mixed algal diet (<span class="html-italic">M. minutum</span> and <span class="html-italic">Cryptomonas</span> sp.), and the green circles refers to the experiment with <span class="html-italic">B. calyciflorus</span> and one algal species (<span class="html-italic">M. minutum</span>); (<b>B</b>–<b>D</b>) the green triangle refers to <span class="html-italic">B. fernandoi</span>.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>A−B−C egg ratio of <span class="html-italic">B. calyciflorus</span> and <span class="html-italic">B. fernandoi</span> exposed to the microbeads (mean ± SD); (<b>A</b>) egg ratio from <span class="html-italic">B. calyciflorus</span> fed on one algal species (<span class="html-italic">M. minutum</span>), with a statistically significant difference between the control group and the microbead treatment group; (<b>B</b>) egg ratio from <span class="html-italic">B. fernandoi</span> fed on one algal species (<span class="html-italic">M. minutum</span>), with a statistically significant difference between the control group and the microbead treatment group; (<b>C</b>) egg ratio from <span class="html-italic">B. calyciflorus</span> fed on mix algal diet (<span class="html-italic">M. minutum</span> and <span class="html-italic">Cryptomonas</span> sp.), with a statistically significant difference between the control group and the microbead treatment group; D−E−F percentage of survival of <span class="html-italic">B. calyciflorus</span> and <span class="html-italic">B. fernandoi</span> exposed to the microbeads (mean ± SD); (<b>D</b>) survival of <span class="html-italic">B. calyciflorus</span> fed on one algal species (<span class="html-italic">M. minutum</span>), with a statistically significant difference between the control group and the microbead treatment group; (<b>E</b>) survival from <span class="html-italic">B. fernandoi</span> feeding on one algal specie (<span class="html-italic">M. minutum</span>); (<b>F</b>) survival from <span class="html-italic">B. calyciflorus</span> fed on mix algal diet (<span class="html-italic">M. minutum</span> and <span class="html-italic">Cryptomonas</span> sp.), with a statistically significant difference between the control group and the microbead treatment group.</p> Full article ">
13 pages, 2923 KiB  
Article
Distribution and Seasonal Variation of Microplastics in Tallo River, Makassar, Eastern Indonesia
by Ega Adhi Wicaksono, Shinta Werorilangi, Tamara S. Galloway and Akbar Tahir
Toxics 2021, 9(6), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics9060129 - 1 Jun 2021
Cited by 54 | Viewed by 6613
Abstract
Attention towards microplastic (MP) pollution in various environments is increasing, but relatively little attention has been given to the freshwater-riverine environment. As the biggest city in the eastern Indonesia region, Makassar can be a potential source of MP pollution to its riverine area. [...] Read more.
Attention towards microplastic (MP) pollution in various environments is increasing, but relatively little attention has been given to the freshwater-riverine environment. As the biggest city in the eastern Indonesia region, Makassar can be a potential source of MP pollution to its riverine area. This study aimed to determine the spatial trends, seasonal variation, and characteristics of MPs in the water and sediment of Tallo River, as the main river in Makassar. Water samples were collected using a neuston net and sediment samples were collected using a sediment corer. The samples collected contained MPs with an abundance ranging from 0.74 ± 0.46 to 3.41 ± 0.13 item/m3 and 16.67 ± 20.82 to 150 ± 36.06 item/kg for water and sediment samples, respectively. The microplastic abundance in the Tallo River was higher in the dry season and tended to increase towards the lower river segment. Fragments (47.80–86.03%) and lines (12.50–47.80%) were the predominant shapes, while blue (19.49–46.15%) and transparent (14.29–38.14%) were the most dominant color. Polyethylene and polypropylene were the common MP polymers found in the Tallo river. Actions to prevent MP pollution in the Makassar riverine area are needed before MP pollution becomes more severe in the future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microplastics in Aquatic Environments: Occurrence, Distribution and Effects)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Sampling points on Tallo River.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Microplastic abundance on the surface water of Tallo River. The arrows below the graph indicate the position of sampling points from the upstream to the downstream part of the river. The error bar indicates standard deviation (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 3). The asterisk indicates the significant difference between sites based on a one-way ANOVA (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05).</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Boxplot diagram of microplastic abundance in water (<b>a</b>) and sediment (<b>b</b>) during the wet and dry seasons in Tallo River. The asterisk indicates the significant difference between the sites based on a <span class="html-italic">t</span>-test (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05). ns indicate no statistical difference between the sites based on a <span class="html-italic">t</span>-test (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &gt; 0.05) explanation.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Microplastic abundance in sediment from Tallo River. The arrows below the graph indicate the position of every site from the upstream to the downstream part of the river. The error bar indicates standard deviation (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 3). The asterisk (*) indicates the significant difference between the sites based on a one-way ANOVA (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05). The double asterisks (**) indicate the higher significant difference between the sites (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01).</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>The proportions of the MPs’ colors (<b>a</b>), shapes (<b>b</b>) and sizes (<b>c</b>) in the water and sediment samples from Tallo River. SMPs, small microplastics (&lt;1 mm); LMPs, large microplastics (1–5 mm).</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Representative of MPs found in the samples. Blue and red line (<b>a</b>,<b>c</b>), blue fragment (<b>b</b>), transparent fragment (<b>d</b>), blue pellet (<b>e</b>), and blue film (<b>f</b>) MPs.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Microplastic polymer identified in water (<b>a</b>) and sediment (<b>b</b>) samples.</p> Full article ">
11 pages, 2794 KiB  
Article
Perfluoroalkylated Substances (PFAS) Associated with Microplastics in a Lake Environment
by John W. Scott, Kathryn G. Gunderson, Lee A. Green, Richard R. Rediske and Alan D. Steinman
Toxics 2021, 9(5), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics9050106 - 11 May 2021
Cited by 51 | Viewed by 8972
Abstract
The presence of both microplastics and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) is ubiquitous in the environment. The ecological impacts associated with their presence are still poorly understood, however, these contaminants are extremely persistent. Although plastic in the environment can concentrate pollutants, factors such [...] Read more.
The presence of both microplastics and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) is ubiquitous in the environment. The ecological impacts associated with their presence are still poorly understood, however, these contaminants are extremely persistent. Although plastic in the environment can concentrate pollutants, factors such as the type of plastic and duration of environmental exposure as it relates to the degree of adsorption have received far less attention. To address these knowledge gaps, experiments were carried out that examined the interactions of PFAS and microplastics in the field and in a controlled environment. For field experiments, we measured the abundance of PFAS on different polymer types of microplastics that were deployed in a lake for 1 month and 3 months. Based on these results, a controlled experiment was conducted to assess the adsorption properties of microplastics in the absence of associated inorganic and organic matter. The adsorption of PFAS was much greater on the field-incubated plastic than what was observed in the laboratory with plastic and water alone, 24 to 259 times versus one-seventh to one-fourth times background levels. These results suggest that adsorption of PFAS by microplastics is greatly enhanced by the presence of inorganic and/or organic matter associated with these materials in the environment, and could present an environmental hazard for aquatic biota. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microplastics in Aquatic Environments: Occurrence, Distribution and Effects)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Locations (channel and lake) for Deployment (filled stars) of Microplastics in Muskegon Lake.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Average Sum of 7 PFAS (ng/kg) by Plastic Types for Materials Deployed in Muskegon Lake, MI for 1 Month and 3 Month Incubations in the Environment.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Average Sum of 7 PFAS (ng/kg) on Polyethylene Deployed at Different Locations in Muskegon Lake, MI. Different letters among bars indicate statistically significant differences among sites for either the 1 month or 3 month incubation period. Asterisks indicate statistically significant differences between the 1 month vs. 3 month incubation at a specific site.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Average Sum of 7 PFAS (ng/kg) for Polypropylene Deployed in Muskegon Lake, MI. Asterisks indicate statistically significant differences between the 1 month vs. 3 month incubation at a specific site.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Average Sum of 7 PFAS (ng/kg) for Polyester Deployed in Muskegon Lake, MI.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Average Summed 3 PFAS concentration (ng/kg) and Percent Adsorption (number above each bar) of PFAS on Plastic for Laboratory Study. Different letters among bars indicate statistically significant differences among sites for either the 1 month or 3 month incubation period.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Low Density Polyethylene Before and After Deployment in Muskegon Lake, MI.</p> Full article ">
12 pages, 1726 KiB  
Article
Interaction between Styrofoam and Microalgae Spirulina platensis in Brackish Water System
by Hadiyanto Hadiyanto, Amnan Haris, Fuad Muhammad, Norma Afiati and Adian Khoironi
Toxics 2021, 9(3), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics9030043 - 26 Feb 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3496
Abstract
Styrofoam is a thermoplastic with special characteristics; it is an efficient insulator, is extremely lightweight, absorbs trauma, is bacteria resistant, and is an ideal packaging material, compared to other thermoplastics. The aim of this study was to analyze the interaction between Styrofoam and [...] Read more.
Styrofoam is a thermoplastic with special characteristics; it is an efficient insulator, is extremely lightweight, absorbs trauma, is bacteria resistant, and is an ideal packaging material, compared to other thermoplastics. The aim of this study was to analyze the interaction between Styrofoam and S. platensis. The study examined the growth of S. platensis under Styrofoam stress, changes in Styrofoam functional groups, and their interactions. The research method was culture carried out in brackish water (12 mg/L salinity) for 30 days. S. platensis yields were tested by FTIR and SEM-EDX and Styrofoam samples by FTIR. The results showed the highest growth rate of S. platensis in cultures treated with 150 mg Styrofoam that is 0.0401 day−1. FTIR analysis shows that there has been a change in the functional group on Styrofoam. At a wavelength of 3400–3200 cm−1 corresponds to the alcohol group and there was an open cyclic chain shown by the appearance of a wavelength at 1680–1600 cm−1 assignment to alkene. SEM-EDX test results show that Styrofoam can be a resource of nutrition, especially carbon for S. platensis to photosynthesize. Increased carbon content of 24.56% occurred in culture, meanwhile, Styrofoam is able to damage S. platensis cells. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microplastics in Aquatic Environments: Occurrence, Distribution and Effects)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Microplastic Styrofoam with a diameter of 2 mm (<b>left</b>) and implementation of Styrofoam in microalgae culture (<b>right</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Brackish water culture <span class="html-italic">S. platensis</span> growth in each treatment (<span class="html-italic">Spirulina</span> A is a control (without Styrofoam), <span class="html-italic">Spirulina</span> B = 150 mg Styrofoam/500 mL culture, <span class="html-italic">Spirulina</span> C = 250 mg Styrofoam/500 mL culture, <span class="html-italic">Spirulina</span> D = 400mg Styrofoam/500 mL culture).</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>The logarithmic of optical density of <span class="html-italic">S. platensis</span> at the exponential phase in brackish water in various concentrations of microplastic treatment (<b>A</b>) control, (<b>B</b>) 150 mg, (<b>C</b>) 250 mg, and (<b>D</b>) 400 mg.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>FTIR results of the ratio of Styrofoam (<b>A</b>) before treatment, (<b>B</b>) 150 mg, (<b>C</b>) 250 mg, and (<b>D</b>) 400 mg; after 30-day treatment with <span class="html-italic">S. platensis</span> in brackish water culture.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>SEM analysis results of brackish water culture <span class="html-italic">S. platensis</span> for 30 days. (<b>A</b>) <span class="html-italic">S. platensis</span> without Styrofoam treatment. (<b>B</b>) <span class="html-italic">S. platensis</span> treated with Styrofoam 150 mg/500 mL. (<b>C</b>) <span class="html-italic">S. platensis</span> treated with Styrofoam 250 mg/500 mL. (<b>D</b>) <span class="html-italic">S. platensis</span> treated with Styrofoam 400 mg/500 mL.</p> Full article ">

Review

Jump to: Editorial, Research

20 pages, 1048 KiB  
Review
Occurrence of Natural and Synthetic Micro-Fibers in the Mediterranean Sea: A Review
by Saul Santini, Eleonora De Beni, Tania Martellini, Chiara Sarti, Demetrio Randazzo, Roberto Ciraolo, Costanza Scopetani and Alessandra Cincinelli
Toxics 2022, 10(7), 391; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10070391 - 13 Jul 2022
Cited by 27 | Viewed by 3548
Abstract
Among microplastics (MPs), fibers are one of the most abundant shapes encountered in the aquatic environment. Growing attention is being focused on this typology of particles since they are considered an important form of marine contamination. Information about microfibers distribution in the Mediterranean [...] Read more.
Among microplastics (MPs), fibers are one of the most abundant shapes encountered in the aquatic environment. Growing attention is being focused on this typology of particles since they are considered an important form of marine contamination. Information about microfibers distribution in the Mediterranean Sea is still limited and the increasing evidence of the high amount of fibers in the aquatic environment should lead to a different classification from MPs which, by definition, are composed only of synthetic materials and not natural. In the past, cellulosic fibers (natural and regenerated) have been likely included in the synthetic realm by hundreds of studies, inflating “micro-plastic” counts in both environmental matrices and organisms. Comparisons are often hampered because many of the available studies have explicitly excluded the micro-fibers (MFs) content due, for example, to methodological problems. Considering the abundance of micro-fibers in the environment, a chemical composition analysis is fundamental for toxicological assessments. Overall, the results of this review work provide the basis to monitor and mitigate the impacts of microfiber pollution on the sea ecosystems in the Mediterranean Sea, which can be used to investigate other basins of the world for future risk assessment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microplastics in Aquatic Environments: Occurrence, Distribution and Effects)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Number of publications per year studying MPs in the environment, MPs in the Mediterranean Sea and MPs/fibers. Source: Web of Science Database.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Pie charts showing the relative abundance (%) of fibers, fragments, films and other shapes (i.e., spheres, pellets, sheets) in the literature data globally in biota (<b>a</b>) and water (<b>b</b>) from the Mediterranean Sea.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Most abundant colors in MFs present in the literature data from the Mediterranean Sea, both in the biota (<b>a</b>), and in seabed and seawater samples (<b>b</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>A comparison of the literature data of percentages frequency of different fiber lengths in biota and water samples from the Mediterranean Sea.</p> Full article ">
22 pages, 4053 KiB  
Review
A Meta-Analysis of the Characterisations of Plastic Ingested by Fish Globally
by Kok Ping Lim, Phaik Eem Lim, Sumiani Yusoff, Chengjun Sun, Jinfeng Ding and Kar Hoe Loh
Toxics 2022, 10(4), 186; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10040186 - 11 Apr 2022
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 4794
Abstract
Plastic contamination in the environment is common but the characterisation of plastic ingested by fish in different environments is lacking. Hence, a meta-analysis was conducted to identify the prevalence of plastic ingested by fish globally. Based on a qualitative analysis of plastic size, [...] Read more.
Plastic contamination in the environment is common but the characterisation of plastic ingested by fish in different environments is lacking. Hence, a meta-analysis was conducted to identify the prevalence of plastic ingested by fish globally. Based on a qualitative analysis of plastic size, it was determined that small microplastics (<1 mm) are predominantly ingested by fish globally. Furthermore, our meta-analysis revealed that plastic fibres (70.6%) and fragments (19.3%) were the most prevalent plastic components ingested by fish, while blue (24.2%) and black (18.0%) coloured plastic were the most abundant. Polyethylene (15.7%) and polyester (11.6%) were the most abundant polymers. Mixed-effect models were employed to identify the effects of the moderators (sampling environment, plastic size, digestive organs examined, and sampling continents) on the prevalence of plastic shape, colour, and polymer type. Among the moderators, only the sampling environment and continent contributed to a significant difference between subgroups in plastic shape and polymer type. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microplastics in Aquatic Environments: Occurrence, Distribution and Effects)
►▼ Show Figures

Graphical abstract

Graphical abstract
Full article ">Figure 1
<p>Flow diagram of study selection.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Overview of the assigned plastic size class and predominant size class of each study in different environments. Only size classes less than 5 mm are shown in this diagram. Each bar represents the plastic size class assigned in each study. Darker colour bars represent predominant size ingested. (S: Seawater; E: Estuarine; F: Freshwater; A: Aquaculture; M: Market). References: [<a href="#B27-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">27</a>] Markic et al., 2018; [<a href="#B52-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">52</a>] Ding et al., 2019a; [<a href="#B56-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">56</a>] McNeish et al., 2018; [<a href="#B61-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">61</a>] Abbasi et al., 2018; [<a href="#B62-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">62</a>] Abidli et al., 2021; [<a href="#B63-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">63</a>] Abiñon et al., 2020; [<a href="#B64-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">64</a>] Agharokh et al., 2021; [<a href="#B65-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">65</a>] Arias et al., 2019; [<a href="#B66-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">66</a>] Atamanalp et al., 2021a; [<a href="#B67-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">67</a>] Atamanalp et al., 2021b; [<a href="#B68-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">68</a>] Atici et al., 2021; [<a href="#B69-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">69</a>] Avio et al., 2015; [<a href="#B70-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">70</a>] Avio et al., 2020; [<a href="#B71-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">71</a>] Bagheri et al., 2020; [<a href="#B72-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">72</a>] Bayo et al., 2021; [<a href="#B73-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">73</a>] Beer et al., 2018; [<a href="#B74-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">74</a>] Bellas et al., 2016; [<a href="#B75-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">75</a>] Bessa et al., 2018; [<a href="#B76-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">76</a>] Bottari et al., 2021; [<a href="#B77-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">77</a>] Chen et al., 2021; [<a href="#B78-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">78</a>] Cordova et al., 2020; [<a href="#B79-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">79</a>] Crutchett et al., 2020; [<a href="#B80-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">80</a>] da Silva et al., 2021; [<a href="#B81-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">81</a>] Daniel et al., 2020; [<a href="#B82-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">82</a>] Dhimmer, 2017; [<a href="#B83-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">83</a>] Digka et al., 2018; [<a href="#B84-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">84</a>] Ding et al., 2019b; [<a href="#B85-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">85</a>] Feng et al., 2019; [<a href="#B86-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">86</a>] Garcia-Garin et al., 2019; [<a href="#B87-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">87</a>] Ghosh et al., 2021; [<a href="#B88-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">88</a>] Gurjar et al., 2021a; [<a href="#B89-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">89</a>] Gurjar et al., 2021b; [<a href="#B90-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">90</a>] Hamilton et al., 2021; [<a href="#B91-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">91</a>] Heshmati et al., 2021; [<a href="#B92-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">92</a>] Hipfner et al., 2018; [<a href="#B93-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">93</a>] Hossain et al., 2019; [<a href="#B94-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">94</a>] Hosseinpour et al., 2021; [<a href="#B95-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">95</a>] Huang et al., 2020; [<a href="#B96-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">96</a>] Jaafar et al., 2021; [<a href="#B97-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">97</a>] James et al., 2020; [<a href="#B98-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">98</a>] Karbalaei et al., 2019; [<a href="#B99-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">99</a>] Koongolla et al., 2020; [<a href="#B100-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">100</a>] Li et al., 2021; [<a href="#B101-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">101</a>] Lin et al., 2020; [<a href="#B102-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">102</a>] Liu et al., 2021; [<a href="#B103-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">103</a>] Lopes et al., 2020; [<a href="#B104-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">104</a>] Lusher et al., 2013; [<a href="#B105-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">105</a>] Lusher et al., 2016; [<a href="#B106-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">106</a>] Makhdoumi et al., 2021; [<a href="#B107-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">107</a>] McIlwraith et al., 2021; [<a href="#B108-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">108</a>] Morgana et al., 2018; [<a href="#B109-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">109</a>] Murphy et al., 2017; [<a href="#B109-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">109</a>] Murphy et al., 2017; [<a href="#B110-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">110</a>] Naidoo et al., 2020; [<a href="#B111-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">111</a>] Nematollahi et al., 2021; [<a href="#B112-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">112</a>] Nikki et al., 2021; [<a href="#B113-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">113</a>] O’Connor et al., 2020; [<a href="#B114-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">114</a>] Palazzo et al., 2021; [<a href="#B115-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">115</a>] Palermo et al., 2020; [<a href="#B116-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">116</a>] Pan et al., 2021; [<a href="#B117-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">117</a>] Park et al., 2021; [<a href="#B118-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">118</a>] Parton et al., 2020; [<a href="#B119-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">119</a>] Parvin et al., 2021; [<a href="#B120-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">120</a>] Pellini et al., 2018; [<a href="#B121-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">121</a>] Pereira et al., 2020; [<a href="#B122-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">122</a>] Piccardo et al., 2018; [<a href="#B123-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">123</a>] Pullen, 2019; [<a href="#B124-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">124</a>] Rasta et al., 2021; [<a href="#B125-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">125</a>] Rios-Fuster et al., 2019; [<a href="#B126-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">126</a>] Rodríguez-Romeu et al., 2020; [<a href="#B127-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">127</a>] Romeo et al., 2015; [<a href="#B128-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">128</a>] Rummel et al., 2016; [<a href="#B129-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">129</a>] Sainio et al., 2021; [<a href="#B130-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">130</a>] Sathish et al., 2020; [<a href="#B131-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">131</a>] Savoca et al., 2021; [<a href="#B132-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">132</a>] Selvam et al., 2021; [<a href="#B133-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">133</a>] Shabaka et al., 2020; [<a href="#B134-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">134</a>] Siddique et al., 2021; [<a href="#B135-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">135</a>] Silva-Cavalcanti et al., 2017; [<a href="#B136-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">136</a>] Sparks &amp; Immelman, 2020; [<a href="#B137-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">137</a>] Su et al., 2019; [<a href="#B138-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">138</a>] Sun et al., 2019; [<a href="#B139-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">139</a>] Suwartinigsih et al., 2020; [<a href="#B140-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">140</a>] Taghizadeh Rahmat Abadi et al., 2021; [<a href="#B141-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">141</a>] Tanaka &amp; Tadaka, 2016; [<a href="#B142-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">142</a>] Tsangaris et al., 2020; [<a href="#B143-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">143</a>] Turhan, 2021; [<a href="#B144-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">144</a>] Valente et al., 2019; [<a href="#B145-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">145</a>] Wang et al., 2021a; [<a href="#B146-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">146</a>] Wang et al., 2021b; [<a href="#B147-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">147</a>] Wang et al., 2020; [<a href="#B148-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">148</a>] Wieczorek et al., 2018; [<a href="#B149-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">149</a>] Wootton et al., 2021a; [<a href="#B150-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">150</a>] Wootton et al., 2021b; [<a href="#B151-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">151</a>] Wu et al., 2020; [<a href="#B152-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">152</a>] Xu et al., 2021; [<a href="#B153-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">153</a>] Yuan et al., 2019; [<a href="#B154-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">154</a>] Zakeri et al., 2020; [<a href="#B155-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">155</a>] Zhang et al., 2020a; [<a href="#B156-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">156</a>] Zhang et al., 2020b; [<a href="#B157-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">157</a>] Zhang et al., 2019; [<a href="#B158-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">158</a>] Zhang et al., 2021a; [<a href="#B159-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">159</a>] Zhang et al., 2021b; [<a href="#B160-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">160</a>] Zhang et al., 2021c; [<a href="#B161-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">161</a>] Zheng et al., 2019; [<a href="#B162-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">162</a>] Zhu et al., 2019a; [<a href="#B163-toxics-10-00186" class="html-bibr">163</a>] Zhu et al., 2019b.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Prevalence forest plot for plastic shape. Blue squares represent subgroup means, while red diamonds and the dotted line represent the overall mean. (<b>a</b>) Subgroup of sampling environment. (<b>b</b>) Subgroup of sampling continent. For statistical details, see individual forest plots in <a href="#app1-toxics-10-00186" class="html-app">supplementary information (Figures S4–S7)</a>.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Prevalence forest plot for plastic colour. Blue squares represent subgroup means, while red diamonds and the dotted line represent the overall mean. (<b>a</b>) Subgroup of sampling environment. (<b>b</b>) Subgroup of sampling continent. For statistical details, see individual forest plots in <a href="#app1-toxics-10-00186" class="html-app">supplementary information (Figures S8–S11)</a>.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Prevalence forest plot for plastic polymer type. Blue squares represent subgroup means, while red diamonds and the dotted line represent the overall mean. (<b>a</b>) Subgroup of sampling environment. (<b>b</b>) Subgroup of sampling continent. PE: Polyethylene; PP: Polypropylene; PES: Polyester; PA: Polyamide. For statistical details, see individual forest plots in <a href="#app1-toxics-10-00186" class="html-app">supplementary information (Figures S12–S15)</a>.</p> Full article ">
19 pages, 1034 KiB  
Review
Microplastics in the Marine Environment: Sources, Fates, Impacts and Microbial Degradation
by Huirong Yang, Guanglong Chen and Jun Wang
Toxics 2021, 9(2), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics9020041 - 22 Feb 2021
Cited by 115 | Viewed by 18605
Abstract
The serious global microplastic pollution has attracted public concern in recent years. Microplastics are widely distributed in various environments and their pollution is already ubiquitous in the ocean system, which contributes to exponential concern in the past decade and different research areas. Due [...] Read more.
The serious global microplastic pollution has attracted public concern in recent years. Microplastics are widely distributed in various environments and their pollution is already ubiquitous in the ocean system, which contributes to exponential concern in the past decade and different research areas. Due to their tiny size coupled with the various microbial communities in aquatic habitats capable of accumulating organic pollutants, abundant literature is available for assessing the negative impact of MPs on the physiology of marine organisms and eventually on the human health. This study summarizes the current literature on MPs in the marine environment to obtain a better knowledge about MP contamination. This review contains three sections: (1) sources and fates of MPs in the marine environment, (2) impacts of MPs on marine organisms, and (3) bacteria for the degradation of marine MPs. Some measures and efforts must be taken to solve the environmental problems caused by microplastics. The knowledge in this review will provide background information for marine microplastics studies and management strategies in future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microplastics in Aquatic Environments: Occurrence, Distribution and Effects)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>The basic characteristics of microplastic about size, type, shape, source and fate.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>The record count and the percentage of total publications in the top 40 research areas related to the assessment of the microplastic effects on organisms and bacterial degradation over time. Source: Web of Science; Period: 1944–2020; Total Publications: 4685; h-index: 162; Average citations per item: 29.31; Sum of Times Cited: 137,315 (without self-citations: 53,749); Citing articles: 32,830 (without self-citations: 29,560). TS = (microplastic * OR micro-plastic * OR plastic particle * OR plastic particulate OR plastic debris OR plastisphere * OR microplastic pollution *) AND (source * OR fate * OR occurrence * OR distribute * OR influence * OR impact * OR affect OR risk * OR effect * OR exposure * OR exposed OR colonize OR colonization OR bacteria * OR germ * OR microbiological OR microorganisms OR microbial OR microbiota OR macrobiotic OR biotechnological OR degrade * OR degradation * OR biodegradation * OR biodegrade * OR organisms * OR creature * OR biota * OR habitat *) AND (marine * OR ocean * OR sea * OR seawater * OR beach * OR shore * OR coast * OR seacoast * OR seaboard *).</p> Full article ">
Show export options expand_more Show export options expand_less
Select all
Export citation of selected articles as:
 
Displaying articles 1-12
Back to TopTop