Toxics

24 pages, 3288 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Environmental Chemical Pollutants on Microbiome Diversity: Insights from Shotgun Metagenomics

by Seid Muhie, Aarti Gautam, John Mylroie, Bintu Sowe, Ross Campbell, Edward J. Perkins, Rasha Hammamieh and Natàlia Garcia-Reyero

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020142 - 19 Feb 2025

Abstract

Chemical exposure in the environment can adversely affect the biodiversity of living organisms, particularly when persistent chemicals accumulate over time and disrupt the balance of microbial populations. In this study, we examined how chemical contaminants influence microorganisms in sediment and overlaying water samples [...] Read more.

Chemical exposure in the environment can adversely affect the biodiversity of living organisms, particularly when persistent chemicals accumulate over time and disrupt the balance of microbial populations. In this study, we examined how chemical contaminants influence microorganisms in sediment and overlaying water samples collected from the Kinnickinnic, Milwaukee, and Menomonee Rivers near Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA. We characterized these samples using shotgun metagenomic sequencing to assess microbiome diversity and employed chemical analyses to quantify more than 200 compounds spanning 16 broad classes, including pesticides, industrial products, personal care products, and pharmaceuticals. Integrative and differential comparative analyses of the combined datasets revealed that microbial density, approximated by adjusted total sequence reads, declined with increasing total chemical concentrations. Protozoan, metazoan, and fungal populations were negatively correlated with higher chemical concentrations, whereas certain bacterial (particularly Proteobacteria) and archaeal populations showed positive correlations. As expected, sediment samples exhibited higher concentrations and a wider dynamic range of chemicals compared to water samples. Varying levels of chemical contamination appeared to shape the distribution of microbial taxa, with some bacterial, metazoan, and protozoan populations present only at certain sites or in specific sample types (sediment versus water). These findings suggest that microbial diversity may be linked to both the type and concentration of chemicals present. Additionally, this study demonstrates the potential roles of multiple microbial kingdoms in degrading environmental pollutants, emphasizing the metabolic versatility of bacteria and archaea in processing complex contaminants such as polyaromatic hydrocarbons and bisphenols. Through functional and resistance gene profiling, we observed that multi-kingdom microbial consortia—including bacteria, fungi, and protozoa—can contribute to bioremediation strategies and help restore ecological balance in contaminated ecosystems. This approach may also serve as a valuable proxy for assessing the types and levels of chemical pollutants, as well as their effects on biodiversity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers in the Novel Methods in Toxicology Research)

21 pages, 564 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Air Pollution Exposure and Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Risk: A Retrospective Case–Control Study with Multi-Pollutant Analysis in Wuhan, Hubei Province

by Mengyang Dai, Jianfeng Liu, Min Hu, Feng Zhang, Yanjun Wang, Fangfang Dai, Rui Qu, Zhixiang Fang and Jing Yang

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020141 - 19 Feb 2025

Abstract

Ambient air pollution has been associated with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM); however, evidence regarding trimester-specific effects from China remains limited. This case–control study study analyzed data from pregnant women who delivered in Wuhan, China, between 2017 and 2022 (164 GDM cases and 731 [...] Read more.

Ambient air pollution has been associated with gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM); however, evidence regarding trimester-specific effects from China remains limited. This case–control study study analyzed data from pregnant women who delivered in Wuhan, China, between 2017 and 2022 (164 GDM cases and 731 controls), integrating geographic information, air quality measurements, and maternal characteristics. Using Inverse Distance Weighting interpolation and Generalized Linear Mixed Models (GLMM), we assessed associations between air pollutant exposure and GDM across different gestational periods. Results indicated that NO₂ demonstrated the strongest association with GDM compared to other pollutants. Specifically, increased NO₂ exposure was consistently associated with higher GDM risk throughout pregnancy. PM_2.5 exposure showed significant associations during early and mid-pregnancy, while SO₂ exposure was significantly associated with GDM risk exclusively in early pregnancy. Sensitivity analyses stratified by urban maternity status and maternal age revealed the stability of the study’s findings. These findings underscore the importance of reducing air pollution exposure during pregnancy and implementing targeted interventions for high-risk populations to prevent GDM development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity of Environmental Factors)

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17 pages, 2405 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Emission Standards on Fine Particulate Matter Toxicity: A Long-Term Analysis in Los Angeles

by Mohammad Mahdi Badami, Yashar Aghaei and Constantinos Sioutas

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020140 - 18 Feb 2025

Abstract

This study examines long-term trends in fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) composition and oxidative potential in Los Angeles based on data from the University of Southern California’s Particle Instrumentation Unit, with chemical composition retrieved from the EPA’s Air Quality System (AQS). While [...] Read more.

This study examines long-term trends in fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) composition and oxidative potential in Los Angeles based on data from the University of Southern California’s Particle Instrumentation Unit, with chemical composition retrieved from the EPA’s Air Quality System (AQS). While regulatory interventions have reduced PM_2.5 mass concentration and primary combustion-related components, our findings reveal a more complex toxicity pattern. From 2001 to 2008, the PM_2.5 oxidative potential, measured via the dithiothreitol (DTT) assay, declined from ~0.84 to ~0.16 nmol/min/m³ under stringent tailpipe controls. However, after this initial decline, PM_2.5 DTT stabilized and gradually increased from ~0.35 in 2012 to ~0.97 nmol/min/m³ by 2024, reflecting the growing influence of non-tailpipe emissions such as brake/tire wear. Metals, such as iron (Fe, ~150 ng/m³) and zinc (Zn, ~10 ng/m³), remained relatively stable as organic and elemental carbon (OC and EC) declined, resulting in non-tailpipe contributions dominating PM_2.5 toxicity. Although PM_2.5 mass concentrations were effectively reduced, the growing contribution of non-tailpipe emissions (e.g., brake/tire wear and secondary organic aerosols) underscores the limitations of mass-based standards and tailpipe-focused strategies. Our findings emphasize the need to broaden regulatory strategies, targeting emerging sources that shape PM_2.5 composition and toxicity and ensuring more improvements in public health outcomes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Air Pollutant Exposure and Respiratory Injury)

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20 pages, 688 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ambient Air Pollution and Parkinson’s Disease and Alzheimer’s Disease: An Updated Meta-Analysis

by Cuiyao Xie, Xi Xia, Kai Wang, Jie Yan, Lijun Bai, Liqiong Guo, Xiaoxue Li and Shaowei Wu

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020139 - 15 Feb 2025

Abstract

Background: Previous epidemiological evidence regarding the associations between ambient air pollution and two major neurodegenerative diseases, Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and Parkinson’s disease (PD), remains inconclusive. Objective: This study aimed to evaluate the associations between long-term and short-term exposure to PM_2.5 and PM [...] Read more.

Background: Previous epidemiological evidence regarding the associations between ambient air pollution and two major neurodegenerative diseases, Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and Parkinson’s disease (PD), remains inconclusive. Objective: This study aimed to evaluate the associations between long-term and short-term exposure to PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ (i.e., particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter of, or smaller than, 2.5 μm or 10 μm), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), ozone, sulfur dioxide, and carbon monoxide and the risks of AD and PD. Methods: A random-effects model was used to summarize individual effect estimates in the meta-analysis. A subgroup meta-analysis was further conducted to explore the potential sources of heterogeneity. Results: In total, 42 eligible studies were included. For each 5 μg/m³ increase in long-term PM_2.5 exposure, the odds ratios (ORs) were 1.16 (95% CI: 1.04, 1.30; I² = 95%) and 1.10 (95% CI: 1.03, 1.17; I² = 95%) for AD and PD, respectively. For each 5 μg/m³ increase in short-term PM_2.5 exposure, the OR was 1.01 (95% CI: 1.002, 1.01; I² = 77%) for PD. For each 1 ppb increase in long-term NO₂ exposure, the OR was 1.01 (95% CI: 1.0002, 1.02; I² = 79%) for PD. Conclusion: Ambient air pollution, particularly PM_2.5, may contribute to the increased risks of neurodegenerative diseases including AD and PD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Unraveling the Health Impacts of Air Pollution: Assessments and Mechanisms)

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14 pages, 15506 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Network Pharmacology to Unveil the Mechanism of Berberine in the Treatment of Streptococcus suis Meningitis in Humans and Pigs

by Pu Guo, Yunda Xue, Dan Zhang, Qirong Lu, Yu Liu, Jianglin Xiong, Chun Ye, Shulin Fu, Zhongyuan Wu, Xu Wang and Yinsheng Qiu

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020138 - 15 Feb 2025

Abstract

Streptococcus suis (S. suis) is a major swine pathogen throughout the world as well as an emerging zoonotic agent. Among the symptoms caused by S. suis, including septicemia, pneumonia, endo-carditis, arthritis, and meningitis, the latter is the most overlooked. In [...] Read more.

Streptococcus suis (S. suis) is a major swine pathogen throughout the world as well as an emerging zoonotic agent. Among the symptoms caused by S. suis, including septicemia, pneumonia, endo-carditis, arthritis, and meningitis, the latter is the most overlooked. In the present study, we explored the mechanism of action of berberine against S. suis meningitis by obtaining berberine-related action targets, porcine S. suis meningitis targets, and human S. suis meningitis targets from open databases. We constructed a protein–protein interaction (PPI) network by using the STRING database and employed Cytoscape 3.8.0 to screen for core targets. We performed Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analyses through DAVID. We identified 31 potential targets of berberine, of which Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), fibronectin 1 (FN1), superoxide dismutase (SOD1), and catalase (CAT) were the four most critical targets. GO analysis revealed the enrichment of terms related to the response to oxidative stress and the inflammatory response. KEGG analysis revealed the enrichment of the interleukin 17 (IL-17), phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)-Akt, TLR, tumor necrosis factor (TNF), and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways. In addition, the admetSAR results showed that berberine can cross the blood–brain barrier. The molecular docking results indicated key binding activity between TLR4–berberine and FN1–berberine. In summary, berberine protects against Streptococcus suis meningitis by regulating inflammatory response and oxidative stress in humans and pigs. Our study updates the current knowledge of the targets of S. suis meningitis to exploit new drugs in humans and pigs, to develop environmentally friendly and antibiotic-free animal-derived food products, and to improve the farming industry and economic development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exploring the Multifaceted Role of Antioxidants: From Molecular Mechanisms to Therapeutic Applications)

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12 pages, 4767 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Disentangling Multiannual Air Quality Profiles Aided by Self-Organizing Map and Positive Matrix Factorization

by Stefano Fornasaro, Aleksander Astel, Pierluigi Barbieri and Sabina Licen

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 137; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020137 - 14 Feb 2025

Abstract

The evaluation of air pollution is a critical concern due to its potential severe impacts on human health. Currently, vast quantities of data are collected at high frequencies, and researchers must navigate multiannual, multisite datasets trying to identify possible pollutant sources while addressing [...] Read more.

The evaluation of air pollution is a critical concern due to its potential severe impacts on human health. Currently, vast quantities of data are collected at high frequencies, and researchers must navigate multiannual, multisite datasets trying to identify possible pollutant sources while addressing the presence of noise and sparse missing data. To address this challenge, multivariate data analysis is widely used with an increasing interest in neural networks and deep learning networks along with well-established chemometrics methods and receptor models. Here, we report a combined approach involving the Self-Organizing Map (SOM) algorithm, Hierarchical Clustering Analysis (HCA), and Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) to disentangle multiannual, multisite data in a single elaboration without previously separating the sites and years. The approach proved to be valid, allowing us to detect the site peculiarities in terms of pollutant sources, the variation in pollutant profiles during years and the outliers, affording a reliable interpretation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Atmospheric Emissions Characteristics and Its Impact on Human Health)

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Scheme of data analysis method. Full article ">Figure 2
Distribution of the modeled variables on the SOM. The distribution of the single pollutants (Ben, NO, NO2, Tol, PM10) on each node is depicted in grayscale, from white (lower concentration values) to black (higher concentration values). In the distance map, the distance between a node and its neighbors is depicted with a scale from green to white: the higher the distance, the greater the prevalence of white shading on the scale. Full article ">Figure 3
Clustered two-way HCA map. Each row represents a node, while each column represents the values of the modeled variables retaining the autoscaling operated before SOM analysis; thus, the color scale represents low (dark red) to high (dark blue) values. The six clusters obtained are depicted by rectangles and the assigned cluster number is indicated on the right-hand side of the figure. Full article ">Figure 4
(a) Division of SOM nodes into 6 clusters as obtained by HCA; (b) representation of the cluster centroid values by radar plots; (c) distribution of the modeled values for each cluster, as defined by SOM. For this figure, we used the same cluster color code as the one used in <a href="#toxics-13-00137-f003" class="html-fig">Figure 3</a>. Full article ">Figure 5
Barplots representing the daily percentage distribution of clusters for site A1. From the top to the bottom of the figure: years from 2018 to 2023. For this figure, we have used the same cluster color code as the one in <a href="#toxics-13-00137-f004" class="html-fig">Figure 4</a>. Full article ">Figure 6
On the left: Variability in the % contribution of each species to the respective PMF factor (sum of factors = 100%). The base run is shown as a blue box for reference. On the right: the nodes that made greater contributions to a factor are represented in black, with a greater amount of black shading indicating a more substantial contribution. Full article ">

19 pages, 2819 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Toxicity Evaluation of Sulfobetainized Branched Polyethyleneimine via Antibacterial and Biocompatibility Assays

by Mehtap Sahiner, Selin S. Suner, Sahin Demirci, Ramesh S. Ayyala and Nurettin Sahiner

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 136; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020136 - 14 Feb 2025

Abstract

Branched polyethyleneimine (PEI), possessing different types of amines—e.g., primary, secondary, and tertiary—in the polymer chains are well known for their antibacterial properties and DNA condensing ability, affording substantial advantages in many biomedical uses, including gene therapy. However, because of PEI’s toxicity, depending on [...] Read more.

Branched polyethyleneimine (PEI), possessing different types of amines—e.g., primary, secondary, and tertiary—in the polymer chains are well known for their antibacterial properties and DNA condensing ability, affording substantial advantages in many biomedical uses, including gene therapy. However, because of PEI’s toxicity, depending on the molecular weight, its widespread biomedical use is hindered. Therefore, in this study, PEIs with different molecular weights—i.e., 600, 1200, and 1800 g/mol—were modified with 1,3-propane sultone, undergoing a sulfobetainization reaction in a single step to attain a zwitterionic structure: sulfobetainized PEI (b-PEI). The sulfobetainization reaction was carried out twice to increase the zwitterionic repeating unit on PEI chains. The increasing number of SO₃⁻ groups on the PEI chains was confirmed by the increased peak intensities around 1160 and 1035 cm⁻¹ on the FT-IR spectrum, which are assigned to symmetric and asymmetric S=O peaks. The elemental analysis results for first- and second- betainization PEIs, abbreviated as b¹-PEI and b²-PEI, respectively, were revealedthe increased wt% of S confirming the successful multiple-sulfobetainization of the PEI chains. Thermal stability analyses of PEIs and their corresponding multiple-sulfobetainized forms showed that multiple-sulfobetainization reactions increased the thermal stability of bare PEI chains. PEIs with lower molecular weights exhibited more antimicrobial properties. As PEI is sulfobetainated, its antimicrobial properties can be further adjusted via sulfobetainization (once or twice), or by adjusting the corresponding solution pH, or by protonating them with different acids with different counter anions. The cell toxicity of PEI on L929 fibroblast cells was slightly increased by increasing the molecular weight of the PEI, but all forms of sulfobetainized PEIs were found to be safe (no toxicity), even at 1000 µg/mL concentrations. Full article

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Schematic presentation of the double betainization of b-PEI chains. Full article ">Figure 2
The FT-IR spectra of the prepared PEI, b1-PEI, and b2-PEI chains: (a) Mn = 600; (b) Mn = 1200; and (c) Mn = 1800 g/mol. Full article ">Figure 3
The TGA thermograms of PEI, b1-PEI, and b2-PEI chains prepared from (a) Mn = 600, (b) Mn = 1200, and (c) Mn = 1800 g/mol, respectively. Full article ">Figure 4
(a) Zeta potential measurements of PEI600, b1PEI600, and b2 PEI600 at different pHs in 0.01 M KNO3 solution; (b) zeta potential measurements of PEI1200, b1-PEI1200, and b2 PEI1200 at different pHs in 0.01 M KNO3 solution; and (c) zeta potential measurements of PEI1800, 1b-PEI1800, and 2b-PEI1800 in different pHs in 0.01 M KNO3 solution. Full article ">Figure 5
Cell viability of fibroblast cells exposed to (a) PEI600, PEI1200, and PEI1800; (b) b1-PEI600, b1-PEI1200, and b1-PEI1800; and (c) b2-PEI600, b2-PEI1200, and b2-PEI1800 for 24 h incubation time. The p-values as *** p < 0.001 and **** p < 0.0001 vs. control were given as statistically significant. Full article ">

17 pages, 2496 KiB

Open AccessReview

Prevalent Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) Pollution in Freshwater Basins in China: A Short Review

by Jingjing Zhang, Jiaoqin Liu, Riya Jin, Yina Qiao, Jipeng Mao and Zunyao Wang

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 135; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020135 - 13 Feb 2025

Abstract

Organic pollutants like per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) exhibit persistence, bioaccumulation, resistance to degradation, and high toxicity, garnering significant attention from scholars worldwide. To better address and mitigate the environmental risks posed by PFASs, this paper employs bibliometric analysis to examine the literature [...] Read more.

Organic pollutants like per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) exhibit persistence, bioaccumulation, resistance to degradation, and high toxicity, garnering significant attention from scholars worldwide. To better address and mitigate the environmental risks posed by PFASs, this paper employs bibliometric analysis to examine the literature on PFASs’ concentrations collected in the Web of Science (WoS) database between 2019 and 2024. The results show that the overall trend of PFASs’ pollution research is relatively stable and increasing. In addition, this study also summarizes the pollution status of traditional PFASs across different environmental media in typical freshwater basins. It analyzes PFASs’ concentrations in surface water, sediment, and aquatic organisms, elucidating their distribution characteristics and potential sources. While perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) levels in water environments are declining annually, short-chain PFASs and their substitutes are emerging as primary pollutants. Short-chain PFASs are frequently detected in surface water, whereas long-chain PFASs tend to accumulate in sediments. In aquatic organisms, PFASs are more likely to concentrate in protein-rich organs and tissues. The environmental presence of PFASs is largely influenced by human activities, such as metal plating, fluoride industry development, and industrial wastewater discharge. Currently, the development of PFASs in China faces a complex dilemma, entangled by policy and legal constraints, industrial production demands, the production and use of new alternatives, and their regulation and restriction, creating a vicious cycle. Breaking this deadlock necessitates continuous and active scientific research on PFASs, particularly PFOS, with an emphasis on detailed investigations of environmental sources and sinks. Furthermore, ecological and health risk assessments were conducted using Risk Quotient (RQ) and Hazard Quotient (HQ) methods. Comprehensive comparison indicates that PFASs (such as PFOA) in the majority of freshwater basins are at a low-risk level (RQ < 0.1 or HQ < 0.2), PFOS in some freshwater basins is at a medium-risk level (0.1 < RQ < 1), and no freshwater basin is at a high-risk level. The adsorption and removal approaches of PFASs were also analyzed, revealing that the combination of multiple treatment technologies as a novel integrated treatment technology holds excellent prospects for the removal of PFASs. Full article

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17 pages, 504 KiB

Open AccessReview

Non-Invasive Matrices for the Human Biomonitoring of PFAS: An Updated Review of the Scientific Literature

by Martí Nadal and José L. Domingo

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020134 - 12 Feb 2025

Abstract

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are synthetic chemicals widely used in consumer and industrial products due to their unique physicochemical properties. However, their persistence and bioaccumulative potential pose significant environmental and human health risks. This review focuses on the use of non-invasive matrices—urine, [...] Read more.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are synthetic chemicals widely used in consumer and industrial products due to their unique physicochemical properties. However, their persistence and bioaccumulative potential pose significant environmental and human health risks. This review focuses on the use of non-invasive matrices—urine, hair, and nails—for the human biomonitoring of PFAS, highlighting key findings from scientific studies. While urine offers a non-invasive and practical option, its limited sensitivity for long-chain PFAS requires further analytical advances. Hair and nails have demonstrated potential for use in biomonitoring, with higher detection frequencies and concentrations for certain PFAS compared to urine. The variability in PFAS levels across studies reflects differences in population characteristics, exposure sources, and geographic regions. This review emphasizes the need for standardized analytical methods, expanded population studies, and the use of complementary matrices to enhance the accuracy and reliability of PFAS exposure assessment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Exposure to per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs): Toxicity, Health Effects, and Mitigation)

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17 pages, 3382 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of [Glu][H₂PO₄] via Foliar Spraying on Cadmium and Arsenic Absorption and Translocation in Rice Plants

by Jiawei Deng, Lin Fu, Yanan Wang, Changbo Zhang, Yun Deng, Xin Luo and Gilles Mailhot

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020133 - 12 Feb 2025

Abstract

Rice is the main source of cadmium (Cd) and arsenic (As) in Chinese diet. The formulation of targeted agronomic interventions for mitigating Cd and As bioaccumulation in rice grains constitutes a critical pathway toward ensuring food safety and public health security. Foliar spraying [...] Read more.

Rice is the main source of cadmium (Cd) and arsenic (As) in Chinese diet. The formulation of targeted agronomic interventions for mitigating Cd and As bioaccumulation in rice grains constitutes a critical pathway toward ensuring food safety and public health security. Foliar spraying technology with ionic liquids, effectively reduces Cd/As content in rice. In this study, an ionic liquid of amino acids ([Glu][H₂PO₄]) as a foliar conditioner was applied to two varieties of rice (X24 and Z35) to explore the mechanism of reducing the accumulation of Cd/As in rice. The results showed that [Glu][H₂PO₄] reduced Cd/As levels by up to 58.57% and 44.09%, respectively. [Glu][H₂PO₄] reduced the transfer factor from the root system to flag leaves, nodes, and other organs, thus reducing the Cd/As content in them. [Glu][H₂PO₄] promoted amino acid synthesis in seeds, increased Ca²⁺ level, increased OsGLR3.1–3.5 expression, and decreased OsLsi1–3 expression in flag leaves, thereby Cd/As was inhibited from being absorbed and transported by rice. The results demonstrated that the foliar application of [Glu][H₂PO₄] significantly mitigated the accumulation of Cd/As in rice. This study introduces a novel and effective strategy for reducing Cd/As accumulation in rice, hoping to enhance the safety and quality of rice crops. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Toxicity Reduction and Environmental Remediation)

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12 pages, 489 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Passive Silicone Samplers Compared to Active Sampling Methods for Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons During Fire Training

by Paro Sen, Miriam Calkins, Keith Stakes, Danielle L. Neumann, I-Chen Chen and Gavin P. Horn

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 132; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020132 - 12 Feb 2025

Abstract

Firefighters are occupationally exposed to many chemicals, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are formed by the incomplete combustion of organic matter during fire response and training activities. However, due to the harsh environments in which firefighters work, as well as consideration for [...] Read more.

Firefighters are occupationally exposed to many chemicals, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are formed by the incomplete combustion of organic matter during fire response and training activities. However, due to the harsh environments in which firefighters work, as well as consideration for time and physical safety while wearing bulky equipment, traditional active sampling methods may not be feasible to measure PAH exposures. Silicone passive samplers offer an alternative approach to assess exposure during fire responses and live fire training due to their heat resistance and ease of deployment in remote or time-limited environments. In this study, the primary objective was to investigate and determine the statistical strength of the relationship between active air sampling methods and passive silicone samplers for PAHs. In this study, silicone wristbands were paired with active sampling devices in a series of burn experiments to compare PAH measurements. Silicone-based measurements correlated strongly with active air samples for the dominant PAHs found, naphthalene and phenanthrene; however, detection was limited in the wristbands when air concentrations were low in active samples. In situations where PAH levels are expected to be high and the potential for contaminant loss via off-gassing is low, silicone samplers may be a useful tool for industrial hygienists to measure PAHs in fire and other emergency responses in extreme environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Firefighters’ Occupational Exposures and Health Risks)

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30 pages, 2104 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Achieving a Biocircular Economy in the Aquaculture Sector Through Waste Valorization

by Setyo Budi Kurniawan, Azmi Ahmad, Muhammad Fauzul Imron, Siti Rozaimah Sheikh Abdullah, Ahmad Razi Othman and Hassimi Abu Hasan

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 131; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020131 - 11 Feb 2025

Abstract

Aquaculture wastewater treatment not only assists in alleviating the scarcity of clean water for daily usage and environmental pollution, but also generates valuable byproducts. This paper aims to review the generation of wastewater from the aquaculture sector, its characteristics, and available treatment technologies, [...] Read more.

Aquaculture wastewater treatment not only assists in alleviating the scarcity of clean water for daily usage and environmental pollution, but also generates valuable byproducts. This paper aims to review the generation of wastewater from the aquaculture sector, its characteristics, and available treatment technologies, while comprehensively discussing the adoption of a biocircular economy approach through waste valorization. With rich nutrients, such as nitrogenous compounds, and the presence of phosphorus in the aquaculture effluent, these aspects could be explored and valorized into biofertilizers, broadening their application in aquaponics and hydroponics, as well as in algae and daphnid cultivation. Biofertilizer can also be used in agriculture because it contains essential elements needed by plants. Thus, methods of converting nutrients into biofertilizers in terms of sludge recovery can be accomplished via anaerobic and aerobic digestion, drying, composting, and vermicomposting. Moving forward, aquaculture effluent recovery is addressed under the biocircular economy by re-engaging aquaculture wastewater effluents into the production cycle. The enhancement of aquaculture effluents and biomass for uses such as aquaponics, hydroponics, algae cultivation, daphnid co-cultivation, and biofertilizers presents valuable opportunities for nutrient recovery while ensuring that non-toxic wastewater can be safely discharged into external water bodies. This approach has the potential to revolutionize wastewater treatment in aquaculture, shifting the economic model of wastewater management from a linear system to a circular, more sustainable one. Full article

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29 pages, 5698 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reconstructing Historical Land Use and Anthropogenic Inputs in Lake Victoria Basin: Insights from PAH and n-Alkane Trends

by Camille Joy Enalbes, Dennis M. Njagi, Chen Luo, Daniel Olago and Joyanto Routh

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020130 - 10 Feb 2025

Abstract

Over the past century, human activities have profoundly transformed global ecosystems. Lake Victoria in East Africa exemplifies these challenges, showcasing the interplay of anthropogenic pressures driven by land use changes, urbanization, agriculture, and industrialization. Our comprehensive study investigates polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and [...] Read more.

Over the past century, human activities have profoundly transformed global ecosystems. Lake Victoria in East Africa exemplifies these challenges, showcasing the interplay of anthropogenic pressures driven by land use changes, urbanization, agriculture, and industrialization. Our comprehensive study investigates polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and n-alkanes in the lake and its catchment to trace their sources and historical deposition. Sediment cores were collected from six sites within the catchment, representing diverse landforms and human activities, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of the basin. The results indicate significant spatial and temporal variations in both PAH and n-alkane profiles, reflecting diverse land use changes and development trajectories in the basin. Urban sites often exhibited higher concentrations of PAHs and short-chain n-alkanes, indicative of anthropogenic sources such as fossil fuel combustion, the input of petroleum hydrocarbons, and industrial emissions. In contrast, rural areas showed low PAH levels and a dominance of long-chain n-alkanes from terrestrial plant waxes. The n-alkane ratios, including the Carbon Preference Index and the Terrigenous–Aquatic Ratio, suggested shifts in organic matter sources over time, corresponding with land use changes and increased human activities. A mid-20th century shift toward increased anthropogenic contributions was observed across sites, coinciding with post-independence development. The mid-lake sediment core integrated inputs from multiple sub-catchments, providing a comprehensive record of basin-scale changes. These findings highlight three distinct periods of organic matter input: pre-1960s, dominated by natural and biogenic sources; 1960s–1990s, marked by increasing anthropogenic influence; and post-1990s, characterized by complex mixtures of pyrogenic, petrogenic, and biogenic sources. This study underscores the cumulative environmental and aquatic ecosystem effects of urbanization (rural vs. urban sites), industrialization, and land use changes over the past century. The combined analyses of PAHs and n-alkanes provide a comprehensive understanding of historical and ongoing environmental impacts, emphasizing the need for integrated management strategies that address pollutant inputs to preserve Lake Victoria’s ecological integrity. Full article

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14 pages, 3484 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cadmium-Induced Kidney Apoptosis Based on the IRE1α-XBP1 Signaling Pathway and the Protective Effect of Quercetin

by Liuxin Wang, Weiwei Cao and Ting Wu

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020129 - 10 Feb 2025

Abstract

Cadmium (Cd) is an important environmental pollutant that can enter the body and inflict kidney damage. Quercetin (Que) is a natural flavonoid compound that can alleviate kidney damage in Cd-treated rats, but the specific mechanism is unclear. Herein, 24 male Sprague–Dawley rats were [...] Read more.

Cadmium (Cd) is an important environmental pollutant that can enter the body and inflict kidney damage. Quercetin (Que) is a natural flavonoid compound that can alleviate kidney damage in Cd-treated rats, but the specific mechanism is unclear. Herein, 24 male Sprague–Dawley rats were divided into four groups, namely the control, Cd, Cd + Que, and Que groups. Four weeks later, the rats were anesthetized with ether and were euthanized; then, their blood was collected and their kidneys were removed. Renal function markers were measured. Kidney tissue structure was observed by HE staining, cell apoptosis was detected by the TUNEL method, and mRNA and protein expression levels in the IRE1α-XBP1 apoptosis signaling pathway were analyzed by RT-PCR and Western blotting. Results showed that the Cd treatment group exhibited decreased renal dysfunction and pathologic injury. Cd-induced tissue damage and cell apoptosis and significantly increased the mRNA and protein expression levels (p < 0.01) related to the IRE1α-XBP1 signaling pathway. Compared with the Cd group, the Cd + Que group exhibited increased renal dysfunction. Conversely, kidney tissue damage and renal cell apoptosis decreased, and the mRNA and protein expression levels of IRE1α and XBP1 significantly decreased (p < 0.01). Cd treatment inflicted renal damage. Therefore, Que can restore the kidney tissue damage and alleviate the cell apoptosis caused by Cd through the inhibition of the IRE1α-XBP1 signaling pathway. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cadmium and Trace Elements Toxicity)

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13 pages, 2001 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Acute Toxicity, Neurotoxic, Immunotoxic, and Behavioral Effects of Deltamethrin and Sulfamethoxazole in Adult Zebrafish: Insights into Chemical Interactions and Environmental Implications

by Yueyue Liu, Fengyu Liu and Chen Wang

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020128 - 10 Feb 2025

Abstract

The increasing presence of antimicrobial agents and pesticides in aquatic environments raises concerns about their potential impacts on non-target organisms. Among these chemicals, deltamethrin (DM), a widely used pesticide, and sulfamethoxazole (SMX), an antimicrobial commonly detected in water bodies, pose significant ecological risks. [...] Read more.

The increasing presence of antimicrobial agents and pesticides in aquatic environments raises concerns about their potential impacts on non-target organisms. Among these chemicals, deltamethrin (DM), a widely used pesticide, and sulfamethoxazole (SMX), an antimicrobial commonly detected in water bodies, pose significant ecological risks. This study investigates the acute toxicity, neurotoxic effects, oxidative stress responses, immune-related gene expression, and feeding behavior of adult zebrafish exposed to DM and SMX. The 96 h LC₅₀ for DM was 4.84 µg/L, indicating significant acute toxicity, while the LC₅₀ for the DM + SMX mixture was 11.32 µg/L, suggesting that SMX may mitigate the toxicity of DM. Neurotransmitter alterations, including reduced levels of γ-aminobutyric acid (γ-GABA), serotonin (5-HT), and acetylcholinesterase (AChE), were observed, with the combination of DM and SMX showing partial restoration of AChE activity. Oxidative stress markers revealed significant changes in antioxidant enzyme activities, with DM exposure increasing superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione-S-transferase (GST) activities, while decreasing catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase (GPX) activities. Immune-related gene expression demonstrated suppressed IgM, IgD, and IgZ levels, along with altered inflammatory responses, with both DM and DM + SMX exposure inducing pro-inflammatory cytokines. Finally, feeding behavior was significantly impaired in the DM group at the 3 min mark, while the DM + SMX group showed partial mitigation of this effect. These findings highlight the neurotoxic, immunotoxic, and behavioral effects of DM and SMX, and underscore the potential for chemical interactions to modulate toxicity in aquatic organisms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occurrence and Environmental Risks of Organic Pollutants in Aquatic Environment)

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The 96 h LC50 results of the acute toxicity test for deltamethrin (DM) and sulfamethoxazole (SMX) on adult zebrafish. The LC50 values were determined by plotting the concentration of each chemical against the percentage of mortality, with data points representing the mean mortality rate from multiple replicates. The dose–response curves were fitted using logistic regression, and LC50 values were calculated from the concentration corresponding to 50% mortality. Statistical analysis was performed to assess significant differences between the two chemicals. Full article ">Figure 2
Changes in the levels of major neurotransmitters in the zebrafish brain following 96 h of exposure. Data are shown as mean ± standard deviation (n = 4). Statistical differences between control and exposed groups were assessed using one-way ANOVA, followed by Dunnett’s test. As * indicate a significant difference (p < 0.05) or ** indicated highly significant (p < 0.01) differences. Full article ">Figure 3
Levels of SOD (A), CAT (B), GPX (C) and GST (D) in the zebrafish brain following exposure. Data are expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Statistical analysis was performed using one-way ANOVA, followed by Dunnett’s test. Significance levels were denoted as * (p < 0.05) for significant differences and ** (p < 0.01) for highly significant differences. Full article ">Figure 4
Alterations in the expression of immune-related genes in the zebrafish brain following 96 h of exposure. Gene expression was quantified using quantitative PCR (qPCR) and normalized to the housekeeping gene. Data are presented as fold changes relative to the control group. Statistical significance was determined by one-way ANOVA, followed by Dunnett’s test. Statistical significance was indicated by asterisks: * p < 0.05 and ** p < 0.01. Full article ">Figure 5
Effects of DM and SMX exposure on the feeding behavior of zebrafish. Statistical differences between the control and exposed groups were assessed using one-way ANOVA, followed by Dunnett’s multiple comparison test. ** for p < 0.01, indicating highly significant differences. Full article ">

16 pages, 2349 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Biochar and Sepiolite on Pb and Cd Dynamics in Contaminated Soil with Different Corn Varieties

by Peiyi Zeng, Muqing Yang, Shujuan He, Ying Kong, Xian Zhu, Zitao Ma and Min Wu

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020127 - 9 Feb 2025

Abstract

Biochar can stabilize heavy metals in soil and inhibit their accumulation in plants as a soil amendment. Sepiolite has also shown good effects in the remediation of soil heavy metal pollution. In this study, biochar, sepiolite, and biochar–sepiolite combined amendments were used to [...] Read more.

Biochar can stabilize heavy metals in soil and inhibit their accumulation in plants as a soil amendment. Sepiolite has also shown good effects in the remediation of soil heavy metal pollution. In this study, biochar, sepiolite, and biochar–sepiolite combined amendments were used to evaluate the accumulation of cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) in soil by 29 corn varieties. The concentrations of Cd and Pb in corn fruits were the lowest (Pb: 0.11 mg/kg, Cd: 0.06 mg/kg). There was a significant difference (p < 0.05) in Pb and Cd accumulation in the roots, stems, leaves, and fruits in the 29 corn varieties. The BCF and TF values of Pb and Cd in the 29 corn varieties were different, and Pb is more likely to accumulate in the roots, Cd is more likely to accumulate in the leaves, and neither heavy metal is easily translocated to the corn fruits. The combination of biochar and sepiolite creates an environment conducive to the retention of heavy metals in the root zone, effectively reducing the risk of heavy metal contamination in the edible parts of the plants. After considering various factors, such as environmental adaptability, we recommend using sepiolite and biochar combined as a soil amendment material and planting the WG1790 variety. Field experiments are needed to verify the effects. These results provide scientific evidence and new strategies for the selection of corn varieties and soil amendments. Full article

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12 pages, 248 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interactions Between BMP2/BMP4 Gene Polymorphisms and Fluoride Exposure on Essential Hypertension: A Cross-Sectional Study in China

by Yue Gao, Qingbo Wang, Junhua Wu, Yang Liu, Xin Wang, Yanhui Gao and Yanmei Yang

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020126 - 8 Feb 2025

Abstract

(1) Objective: To evaluate the relationship between fluoride exposure, interactions of BMP2/BMP4 gene polymorphisms, and fluoride exposure on essential hypertension. (2) Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 725 participants in a high-fluoride region of Shanxi Province, China. Urinary fluoride concentrations were measured [...] Read more.

(1) Objective: To evaluate the relationship between fluoride exposure, interactions of BMP2/BMP4 gene polymorphisms, and fluoride exposure on essential hypertension. (2) Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among 725 participants in a high-fluoride region of Shanxi Province, China. Urinary fluoride concentrations were measured as indicators of fluoride exposure. Hypertension was diagnosed based on standard guidelines. BMP2 (rs1005464) and BMP4 (rs17563) polymorphisms were genotyped. Logistic regression and interaction models were performed to evaluate associations and interactions between fluoride exposure, gene polymorphisms, and hypertension. (3) Results: Higher urinary fluoride concentrations were significantly associated with an increased risk of hypertension, exhibiting a dose-dependent relationship. The rs1005464 (G > A) polymorphism of BMP2 was identified as a protective factor against hypertension in individuals with the AG + AA genotype. Significant interactions were observed between the BMP2 rs1005464 and BMP4 rs17563 polymorphisms, influencing hypertension risk. Additionally, both multiplicative and additive interactions between high fluoride exposure and the BMP4 rs17563 polymorphism were identified, highlighting the combined impact of environmental and genetic factors on hypertension. (4) Conclusions: Fluoride exposure is positively associated with hypertension. BMP2 gene polymorphisms affect the risk of hypertension, and BMP4 gene polymorphisms may modify the impact of fluoride on hypertension. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Mechanisms of Disease Caused from Environmental Fluoride and Arsenic Exposures)

14 pages, 8347 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Developmental Toxicity and Cardiotoxicity of N, N-Dimethylaniline in Zebrafish Embryos

by Bin Liu, Bo Peng, Yan Jin, Yijie Tao, Wenping Xu, Yang Zhang and Zhong Li

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 125; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020125 - 8 Feb 2025

Abstract

N, N-Dimethylaniline is an important chemical intermediate and an important metabolite of the pesticide Fenaminosulf. It is widely used in chemical production, but there is an extreme paucity of environmental risk assessments for N, N-dimethylaniline.: In this study, the cardiotoxicity of continuous exposure [...] Read more.

N, N-Dimethylaniline is an important chemical intermediate and an important metabolite of the pesticide Fenaminosulf. It is widely used in chemical production, but there is an extreme paucity of environmental risk assessments for N, N-dimethylaniline.: In this study, the cardiotoxicity of continuous exposure to N, N-dimethylaniline (20, 40, and 80 μg/mL) for 72 h was evaluated using zebrafish embryos.: The study found that N, N-dimethylaniline not only exhibits developmental toxicity to zebrafish embryos, leading to abnormalities such as pericardial edema, yolk sac edema, and spinal curvature, but also induces oxidative stress, lipid accumulation, and apoptosis, particularly affecting the heart region. Cardiac function indicators such as pericardial area, sinus venosus (SV) and bulbar artery (BA) distance, heart rate, and red blood cell (RBC) rate were all significantly altered due to exposure to N, N-dimethylaniline, with impaired cardiac morphology and structure and the downregulation of gene expression related to heart development and function (myl7, vmhc, myh6, bmp4, tbx2b, and has2).: The research findings suggest that the heart may be the potential target organ for the toxic effects of N, N-dimethylaniline, providing a scientific basis for the rational use of this compound and environmental protection. Furthermore, it enhances public awareness of the safety of substances that may degrade to produce N, N-dimethylaniline during their use. Full article

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N, N-dimethylaniline induces dysplasia in zebrafish embryos. Survival rate of concentration screening pre-experiments (A) at 72 h at each concentration. Schematic diagram of the malformations (B) included pericardial edema (Pe), yolk sac edema (Yse), and spinal curvature (Sc). Malformation rate (C), hatching rate (D), body length (E), relative yolk sac area (F), and number of spontaneous movements in 60 s (G) were also counted. Data are expressed as mean ± standard deviation (mean ± SD), and 30 embryos were analyzed in each experimental and control group (n = 3). p-values: *** for p ≤ 0.001, ** for p ≤ 0.01, and * for p ≤ 0.05. Full article ">Figure 2
N, N-dimethylaniline induces oxidative stress. Fluorescence images of ROS staining (A) and relative fluorescence intensity in the heart region (B). SOD activity (C), CAT activity (D), GSH content (E), and MDA content (F) at 72hpf. Data are expressed as mean ± standard deviation (mean ± SD), and 30 embryos were analyzed in each experimental and control group (n = 3). p-values: *** for p ≤ 0.001, ** for p ≤ 0.01, and * for p ≤ 0.05. Full article ">Figure 3
N, N-dimethylaniline induces lipid accumulation and apoptosis. Oil Red O staining images (A) and relative degree of lipid accumulation in the heart region (B). Apoptotic images stained with AO in the cardiac region at 72 h (C) and analyzed for relative fluorescence intensity (D). Data are expressed as mean ± standard deviation (mean ± SD), and 30 embryos were analyzed in each experimental and control group (n = 3). p-values: *** for p ≤ 0.001 and ** for p ≤ 0.01. Full article ">Figure 4
Zebrafish pericardial region images (A) and relative pericardial area (B). Relative SV-BA distances (C), heart rate (D), and red blood cell (RBC) flow rate (E). Data are expressed as mean ± standard deviation (mean ± SD), and 30 embryos were analyzed in each experimental and control group (n = 3). p-values: *** for p ≤ 0.001, ** for p ≤ 0.01, and * for p ≤ 0.05. Full article ">Figure 5
H&E pathology sections (A). The blue arrows represent thinning ventricle walls caused by a reduction in cardiac muscle cells. Morphologic change images of cardiac muscle transgenic zebrafish (Tg (myl7: GFP)) heart at 72 h (B) and cardiac fluorescence intensity statistics (C). Data are expressed as mean ± standard deviation (mean ± SD), and 30 embryos were analyzed in each experimental and control group (n = 3). p-values: ** for p ≤ 0.01. Full article ">Figure 6
Expression analysis of heart-related genes (myl7, vmhc, myh6, bmp4, tbx2b, and has2) under N, N-dimethylaniline exposure. Data are expressed as mean ± standard deviation (mean ± SD), and 30 embryos were analyzed in each experimental and control group (n = 3). p-values: *** for p ≤ 0.001, ** for p ≤ 0.01, and * for p ≤ 0.05. Full article ">

16 pages, 4988 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Seasonal Trends and Site Differences of Nitroaromatic Compounds in PM_2.5 in Sichuan Basin and Their Effects on Light Absorption of Brown Carbon

by Tian Tang, Buyi Xu, Hongli Tao, Tingting Huo and Huanbo Wang

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020124 - 6 Feb 2025

Abstract

Nitroaromatic compounds (NACs) have adverse effects on human health and climate. Daily PM_2.5 samples were collected in winter and summer of 2022 in two cities, Chengdu (CD) and Mianyang (MY), located in Sichuan Basin of southwestern China. Four types of NACs in [...] Read more.

Nitroaromatic compounds (NACs) have adverse effects on human health and climate. Daily PM_2.5 samples were collected in winter and summer of 2022 in two cities, Chengdu (CD) and Mianyang (MY), located in Sichuan Basin of southwestern China. Four types of NACs in PM_2.5, containing nitrophenols, nitrocatechols, nitrosalicylic acids, and nitronaphthol, were analyzed. The mean concentration of a total of 10 NACs (ΣNACs) in winter at the suburban MY site (71.7 ± 35.6 ng m⁻³) was higher than that in urban CD (29.5 ± 16.2 ng m⁻³), while in summer, the mean concentrations of ΣNACs in the two cities were similar, around 2.2 ng m⁻³. The much higher concentrations of ΣNACs in winter were attributed to the impact of biomass burning. 4-Nitrocatechol (4NC) was the most abundant species during the sampling period, accounting for 35–56% of ΣNACs mass. In winter, the mean light absorption coefficient of methanol-soluble brown carbon (Abs_365,M) was 10.5 ± 3.4 and 13.6 ± 4.3 Mm⁻¹ in CD and MY, respectively, which was about 4–7 times that of summer. The contributions of light absorption of ΣNACs at 365 nm to Abs_365,M were 1.6–3.6% in winter and 0.5–0.7% in summer, with 4NC contributing the most to brown carbon among all NACs. The geographical origins of potential sources of NACs at both sites were mainly distributed within the basin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Air Pollution and Health)

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22 pages, 7364 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization and Source Apportionment Analysis of PM_2.5 and Ozone Pollution over Fenwei Plain, China: Insights from PM_2.5 Component and VOC Observations

by Litian Xu, Bo Wang, Ying Wang, Huipeng Zhang, Danni Xu, Yibing Zhao and Kaihui Zhao

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020123 - 6 Feb 2025

Abstract

PM_2.5 and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) have been identified as the primary air pollutants affecting the Fenwei Plain (FWP), necessitating urgent measures to improve its air quality. To gain a deeper understanding of the formation mechanisms of these pollutants, this study employed [...] Read more.

PM_2.5 and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) have been identified as the primary air pollutants affecting the Fenwei Plain (FWP), necessitating urgent measures to improve its air quality. To gain a deeper understanding of the formation mechanisms of these pollutants, this study employed various methods such as HYSPLIT, PCT, and PMF for analysis. Our results indicate that the FWP is primarily impacted by PM_2.5 from the southern Shaanxi air mass and the northwestern air mass during winter. In contrast, during summer, it is mainly influenced by O₃ originating from the southern air mass. Specifically, high-pressure fronts are the dominant weather pattern affecting PM_2.5 pollution in the FWP, while high-pressure backs predominately O₃ pollution. Regarding the sources of PM_2.5, secondary nitrates, vehicle exhausts, and secondary sulfates are major contributors. As for volatile organic compounds, liquefied petroleum gas sources, vehicle exhausts, solvent usage, and industrial emissions are the primary sources. This study holds crucial scientific significance in enhancing the regional joint prevention and control mechanism for PM_2.5 and O₃ pollution, and it provides scientific support for formulating effective strategies for air pollution prevention and control. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concentration of VOCs in the Atmosphere and Its Environmental Exposure)

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(a) Location map of the FWP; (b) topographic map of FWP; (c) schematic diagrams of three areas within the FWP. Full article ">Figure 2
Concentration and composition of (a) PM2.5 and (b) VOCs. Full article ">Figure 3
The weighted analysis results of urban pollutant concentrations in (a,c,e) winter and (b,d,f) summer seasons from 2015 to 2022. The map was created using MeteoInfo software (version 3.7.9, <a href="http://meteothink.org/" target="_blank">http://meteothink.org/</a>, accessed on 12 February 2024). MeteoInfo is widely used for creating weighted analysis maps with the HYSPLIT model. Full article ">Figure 4
The classification results of large-scale circulation on PM2.5 pollution days in the FWP from 2015 to 2022 ((a) HPF; (b) HPC; (c) LPF; (d) HPB). The location of FWP plain is highlighted by the green box. Full article ">Figure 5
The classification results of large-scale circulation on O3 pollution days in the FWP from 2015 to 2022 ((a) HPB; (b) LPF; (c) LTF; (d) EPF). The location of FWP plain is highlighted by the green box. Full article ">Figure 6
(a) Source profiles derived from the PMF model and source contributions to PM2.5 concentration. Source contributions to the ambient PM2.5 (b) all year and (c) in winter. (d) Factor contribution concentration. Full article ">Figure 7
(a) Source profiles derived from the PMF model and source contributions to VOC concentration. Source contributions to the ambient VOCs (b) all year and (c) in summer. (d) Factor contribution concentration. Full article ">

16 pages, 6838 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Acute Toxicity and Cardiotoxic Effects of Levofloxacin on Zebrafish (Danio rerio)

by Yixiao Wu, Wenjing Yu, Zhenyan Song, Jiawei He, Ze Li, Qi Chen, Shiwei Wang, Ping Li and Shaowu Cheng

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 122; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020122 - 5 Feb 2025

Abstract

Emerging contaminants refer to chemical substances that have not been widely regulated but possess the potential to cause adverse effects on both the environment and human health. Antibiotics, as emerging contaminants, pose significant threats to ecosystems and human health due to their widespread [...] Read more.

Emerging contaminants refer to chemical substances that have not been widely regulated but possess the potential to cause adverse effects on both the environment and human health. Antibiotics, as emerging contaminants, pose significant threats to ecosystems and human health due to their widespread use and persistence in the environment. Levofloxacin, a broad-spectrum fluoroquinolone antibiotic, is commonly employed in the treatment of bacterial infections, and has been frequently detected in environmental matrices and freshwater systems. In this study, we assessed the effects of levofloxacin on hatchability, mortality rates, malformations, behavioral changes, and cardiac development in zebrafish embryos by exposing them to varying concentrations of levofloxacin (0, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, and 8 mM). Our results demonstrate that levofloxacin exposure significantly impaired the growth and development of zebrafish larvae, particularly at higher concentrations. Notable effects included reduced body length, abnormal yolk sac and swim bladder development, pericardial edema, prolonged distances between the sinus venosus and arteriolar bulb (SV-BA), and disruptions in heart rate. Quantitative PCR analysis further revealed that levofloxacin exposure significantly upregulated the expression of key cardiac development genes in zebrafish larvae, including nppa, myh6, cacna1ab, myl7, gata4, nkx2.5, tbx2b, and tbx5b. These findings indicate that levofloxacin exposure exerts significant toxic effects on both embryonic and larval growth as well as heart development and gene expression in zebrafish. This study provides critical insights into the potential ecological risks posed by levofloxacin along with other antibiotics while laying a foundation for further investigation into their toxicological mechanisms. Full article

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Developmental toxicity of levofloxacin exposure in zebrafish embryos. (A) Hatching rates of zebrafish embryos exposed to levofloxacin at 72 hpf; (B) survival rates of zebrafish embryos exposed to levofloxacin at 96 hpf; (C) survival rates of zebrafish larvae at different time points under different concentrations of levofloxacin. * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01 vs. 0 mM. Full article ">Figure 2
Morphological effects of levofloxacin exposure on zebrafish larvae at 96 hpf and 120 hpf. (A) Body length at 96 hpf; (B) yolk sac area at 96 hpf; (C) swim bladder area at 96 hpf; (D) body length at 120 hpf; (E) yolk sac area at 120 hpf; (F) swim bladder area at 120 hpf. * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; **** p < 0.0001 vs. 0 mM. (G) Comparison of body length between 96 hpf and 120 hpf; (H) comparison of yolk sac area between 96 hpf and 120 hpf; (I) comparison of swim bladder area between 96 hpf and 120 hpf. # p < 0.05; ## p < 0.01; ### p < 0.001; #### p < 0.0001 vs. same concentration at 96 hpf. Full article ">Figure 3
Morphological effects of levofloxacin exposure on zebrafish larvae. The red arrow indicates the yolk sac, the blue arrow indicates the swim bladder, and the red dashed line highlights the pericardial area. SV-BA: Length of sinus venosus to bulbus arteriosus. Full article ">Figure 4
Cardiotoxic effects of levofloxacin exposure on zebrafish larvae. (A) Pericardial area of zebrafish larvae; (B) SV-BA length of zebrafish larvae; (C) ratio of SV-BA to body length of zebrafish larvae; (D) heart rate (beats per minute) of zebrafish larvae after 72 h of levofloxacin exposure; (E–H) expression of cardiac development marker genes (nppa, myh6, myl7, cacna1ab); (I–L) expression levels of major transcription factors (gata4, nkx2.5, tbx2b, tbx5b). * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001; **** p < 0.0001 vs. 0 mM. Full article ">Figure 5
Effects of 96 h levofloxacin exposure on zebrafish larval swimming behavior. (A) Low-to-moderate speed movement distance of zebrafish larvae in each concentration group; (B) high-speed movement distance of zebrafish larvae in each concentration group; (C) total movement distance of zebrafish larvae in each concentration group; (D) swimming trajectories of zebrafish larvae in each concentration group. Green trajectories represent low-to-moderate speed movement (1–12 cm/s), and red trajectories represent high-speed movement (>12 cm/s). ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001; **** p < 0.0001 vs. 0 mM. Full article ">

28 pages, 1682 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Operational Jet Fuel and Noise Exposure for Flight Line Personnel at Japanese and United States Air Bases in Japan

by David R. Mattie, Dirk Yamamoto, Kerrine LeGuin, Elizabeth McKenna, Daniel A. Williams, Alex Gubler, Patricia N. Hammer, Nobuhiro Ohrui, Satoshi Maruyama and Asao Kobayashi

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 121; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020121 - 5 Feb 2025

Abstract

Flight line personnel are constantly exposed to noise and jet fuel while working on flight lines. Studies suggest that jet fuel in combination with noise affects hearing loss more than noise exposure alone. This study examined the combined effects of jet fuel and [...] Read more.

Flight line personnel are constantly exposed to noise and jet fuel while working on flight lines. Studies suggest that jet fuel in combination with noise affects hearing loss more than noise exposure alone. This study examined the combined effects of jet fuel and noise exposure on the hearing of flight line personnel stationed at Japan Air Self-Defense Force Air Bases (Hamamatsu, Matsushima, Hyakuri, Yokota, and Iruma) and US Air Force Air Bases (Kadena and Misawa) in Japan. Samples were collected from all participants, 97 flightline-exposed and 71 control volunteers, to measure their individual noise levels with a personal sound level meter and volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) with a chemical sampling pump during a single shift. Blood samples were collected post shift. Urine samples (entire void) were collected prior to the shift (morning first void) and post shift. VOCs were measured in air, blood, and urine. An audiometric test battery, consisting of immittance measurements, audiograms, distortion product otoacoustic emissions, and the auditory brain response, was conducted after the shift to examine the hearing of participants. Total VOCs in personal air samples were in the ppb range for each group. Tinnitus and temporary hearing loss were reported in audiological histories but were also present in some controls. Noise levels on the flight line were greater than the action level for requiring hearing protection and exceeded exposure limits, but all exposed subjects reported wearing hearing protection. Audiometric tests identified significant differences and trends between flight line and control personnel, indicating the potential for hearing disorders. In spite of very low levels of VOC exposure and wearing hearing protection for noise, there is still the potential for hearing issues in flight line personnel. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Toxicological Impact of Jet and Rocket Fuel on Human Health)

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20 pages, 3343 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influencing Factors of Phosphorus Mobility and Retention in the Sediment of Three Typical Plateau Lakes

by Xue Wu, Yancai Wang, Lixin Jiao, Jia He, Hongbin Zhou and Zhengzheng Hao

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 120; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020120 - 3 Feb 2025

Abstract

The mechanisms driving changes in the stability of phosphorus (P) in sediments under lake ecosystem degradation remain poorly understood. This study investigated the P-binding forms in sediments from three plateau lakes with different trophic states in Yunnan Province, China, aiming to elucidate the [...] Read more.

The mechanisms driving changes in the stability of phosphorus (P) in sediments under lake ecosystem degradation remain poorly understood. This study investigated the P-binding forms in sediments from three plateau lakes with different trophic states in Yunnan Province, China, aiming to elucidate the responses of sediment P compositions to human activities, lake trophic status, and dissolved organic matter (DOM) characteristics. The results showed that human activity directly contributed to sediment P retention. The trophic type of lake exerted a discernible effect on P mobility in the sediments, as eutrophic algae-type lakes had a higher content of sediment mobile-P. Moreover, the sediment DOM promoted the adsorption of BD-P and NH₄Cl-P. Generally, exogenous pollution caused by human activity leads to lake eutrophication and a decline in lake ecosystem stability. This variation was largely influenced by water depth. A decrease in lake ecosystem stability leads to increased P mobility in sediments, which increases the risk of endogenous pollution. The DOM plays an important role in the mobility of sediment P. These insights offer a novel perspective for understanding how lake ecosystem characteristics are related to endogenous P loads in lakes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occurrence and Environmental Risks of Organic Pollutants in Aquatic Environment)

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27 pages, 6214 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Role of Epigenetic Mechanisms in the Development of PM_2.5-Induced Cognitive Impairment

by Lishan Jiang, Mingxia Shao, Chao Song, Li Zhou, Wenke Nie, Hang Yu, Siqi Wang, Yongping Liu and Li Yu

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 119; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020119 - 2 Feb 2025

Abstract

PM_2.5 is fine particulate matter with a diameter of less than 2.5 μm. Recent evidence has shown that exposure to PM_2.5 markedly elevates the risk of neurodegenerative diseases, neurodevelopmental disorders, and cardiovascular diseases, which may culminate in cognitive impairment. Nevertheless, the [...] Read more.

PM_2.5 is fine particulate matter with a diameter of less than 2.5 μm. Recent evidence has shown that exposure to PM_2.5 markedly elevates the risk of neurodegenerative diseases, neurodevelopmental disorders, and cardiovascular diseases, which may culminate in cognitive impairment. Nevertheless, the precise mechanisms through which PM_2.5 affects cognitive function are unclear. Recent studies have demonstrated that PM_2.5-induced epigenetic alterations are associated with the development of cognitive impairment. Epigenetic alterations include modifications to DNA methylation, histone modifications, and non-coding RNAs. The underlying mechanisms of epigenetic alterations are related to inflammation, synaptic dysfunction, cardiovascular factors, and alterations in neuronal structure and function. This review reports the latest findings on the relationship between PM_2.5-induced epigenetic alterations and the development of cognitive disorders, offering novel insights into the cognitive effects of air pollution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neuronal Injury and Disease Induced by Environmental Toxicants)

20 pages, 2213 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comprehensive Cross-Sectional Study of the Triglyceride Glucose Index, Organophosphate Pesticide Exposure, and Cardiovascular Diseases: A Machine Learning Integrated Approach

by Xuehai Wang, Mengxin Tian, Zengxu Shen, Kai Tian, Yue Fei, Yulan Cheng, Jialing Ruan, Siyi Mo, Jingjing Dai, Weiyi Xia, Mengna Jiang, Xinyuan Zhao, Jinfeng Zhu and Jing Xiao

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 118; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020118 - 1 Feb 2025

Abstract

Using NHANES data from 2003 to 2008, 2011 to 2012, and 2015 to 2020, we examined the relationship between urinary organophosphate pesticide (OPP) metabolites and the triglyceride glucose (TyG) index. The TyG index evaluates insulin resistance, a crucial factor in metabolic diseases. Linear [...] Read more.

Using NHANES data from 2003 to 2008, 2011 to 2012, and 2015 to 2020, we examined the relationship between urinary organophosphate pesticide (OPP) metabolites and the triglyceride glucose (TyG) index. The TyG index evaluates insulin resistance, a crucial factor in metabolic diseases. Linear regression analyzed urinary metabolites in relation to the TyG index and OPPs. An RCS (restricted cubic spline) model explored the nonlinear relationship of a single OPP metabolite to TyG. A weighted quantile regression and quantile-based g-computation assessed the impact of combined OPP exposure on the TyG index. XGBoost, Random Forest, Support Vector Machines, logistic regression, and SHapley Additive exPlanations models investigated the impact of OPPs on the TyG index and cardiovascular disease. Network toxicology identified CVD targets associated with OPPs. This study included 4429 participants based on specific criteria. Linear regression analysis indicated that diethyl thiophosphate was positively correlated with the TyG index. The positive correlation between OPP metabolites and the TyG index at low to moderate concentrations was confirmed by WQS and QGC analyses. The machine learning results aligned with traditional statistical findings. Network toxicology identified PTGS3, PPARG, HSP40AA1, and CXCL8 as targets influenced by OPPs. OPP exposure influences IR and cardiometabolic health, highlighting the importance of public health prevention. Full article

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Figure 1

Figure 1
Relationship between urine OPP levels and TyG index for all participants. The square in the center of the line is the β value, and the width of the line represents the 95% CI. Model 1 did not include covariates; Model 2 included age, gender, education level, marital status, race, and PIR; Model 3 on 2 then includes smoking, BMI, diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease. Full article ">Figure 2
Relationship between urinary OPP levels and TyG index based on RCS analysis. Solid blue lines indicate ORs and blue shaded ranges indicate 95% CIs. Horizontal dashed lines represent reference ratios to 1.0. Full article ">Figure 3
The relationship between OPP combinations and TyG index in the QGC and WQS model. (A) The result of the quantile-based g-computation. (B) The result of the weighted quantile and regression. All models were adjusted for demographic characteristics (age, gender, education level, marital status, race, PIR, and BMI), lifestyle (smoking), and disease status (diabetes, hypertension, and cardiovascular disease). Full article ">Figure 4
Machine learning model performance and the ROC of the four machine learning models. (A) Machine learning model performance for TyG index prediction. (B) ROC curves for CVD death prediction. (C) ROC curves for CVD prediction. Full article ">Figure 5
The contribution of OPPs and baseline variables in predictive model. (A) The SHAP features importance plot of OPPs and TyG index. (B) The SHAP summary plot of OPPs and TyG index. (C) The SHAP features importance plot of OPPs and CVD. (D) The SHAP summary plot of OPPs and CVD. (E) The SHAP features importance plot of OPPs and CVD-related deaths. (F) The SHAP summary plot of OPPs and CVD-related deaths. Full article ">Figure 6
Mechanistic pathway of OPP-induced insulin resistance. OPPs, organophosphate pesticides; ROS, reactive oxygen species; NF-κB, Nuclear Factor-kappa B; TNF-α, Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha; IR, insulin resistance; TyG index, triglyceride glucose index. Full article ">

17 pages, 1562 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ozone Exposure and Gestational Diabetes in Twin Pregnancies: Exploring Critical Windows and Synergistic Risks

by Anda Zhao, Yuanqing Xia, Ruoyu Lu, Wenhui Kang, Lili Huang, Renyi Hua, Shuping Lyu, Yan Zhao, Jianyu Chen, Yanlin Wang and Shenghui Li

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 117; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020117 - 1 Feb 2025

Abstract

The relationship between ozone (O₃) exposure and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) in twin pregnancies remains unexplored. This study aimed to investigate the association between O₃ exposure and GDM risk in twin pregnancies, and to explore the synergistic effects of O [...] Read more.

The relationship between ozone (O₃) exposure and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) in twin pregnancies remains unexplored. This study aimed to investigate the association between O₃ exposure and GDM risk in twin pregnancies, and to explore the synergistic effects of O₃ exposure with other maternal factors. A total of 428 pregnancies recruited from a prospective twin cohort were included. Cox proportional hazard models with distributed lag non-linear models (DLNMs) were applied to examine the associations between O₃ exposure and the risk of GDM and to identify the critical windows. The multiplicative and additive interaction were further analyzed to test the synergistic effects. A 10 μg/m³ increase in average O₃ exposure during the 12 weeks before pregnancy was associated with a 26% higher risk of GDM. The critical windows were identified in the period from the 3rd week before gestation to the 2nd gestational week as well as from the 17th to 19th gestational week. There were synergistic effects between high O₃ exposure during preconception and advanced maternal age, and a history of preterm birth/abortion/stillbirth. Periconceptional O₃ exposure could increase the risk of GDM in twin pregnancy women, and the synergism of O₃ exposure with certain GDM risk factors was observed. Full article

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Figure 1
Weekly associations of O3 exposure (per 10 μg/m3) with the development of GDM. (a) and (b) showed the weekly association between O3 and GDM of pregnancy in 2D and 3D plots, respectively. Adjusted for temperature and relative humidity, sociodemographic characteristics (advanced maternal age, ethnicity, education level, and family income), history of preterm birth/abortion/still birth, first gestation, primipara, chorionicity, pregnancy via assisted reproductive technology, pregnancy health indicators, including maternal tobacco/alcohol use, pre-pregnancy body mass index, anemia, thyroid disease, and gestational hypertension. O3: ozone; GDM: gestational diabetes mellitus; HR: hazard ratio; CI: confidence interval. Full article ">Figure 2
Interaction between high O3 exposure during the 12 weeks before pregnancy and maternal characteristics on GDM risks. Adjusted for temperature and relative humidity, sociodemographic characteristics (advanced maternal age, ethnicity, education level, and family income), history of preterm birth/abortion/still birth, first gestation, primipara, chorionicity, pregnancy via assisted reproductive technology, pregnancy health indicators, including maternal tobacco/alcohol use, pre-pregnancy body mass index, anemia, thyroid disease, and gestational hypertension. O3: ozone; GDM: gestational diabetes mellitus; HR: hazard ratio; CI: confidence interval; MI: multiplicative interaction; RERI: relative excess risk due to interaction. Full article ">Figure 3
Stratification analyses: weekly associations between high O3 exposure during the 12 weeks before pregnancy and GDM for different maternal characteristics. (a,b) showed the association in women without and with advanced maternal age, respectively. (c,d) showed the association in women without and with history of preterm birth/abortion/still birth, respectively. Adjusted for temperature and relative humidity, sociodemographic characteristics (advanced maternal age, ethnicity, education level, and family income), history of preterm birth/abortion/still birth, first gestation, primipara, chorionicity, pregnancy via assisted reproductive technology, pregnancy health indicators, including maternal tobacco/alcohol use, pre-pregnancy body mass index, anemia, thyroid disease, and gestational hypertension. O3: ozone; GDM: gestational diabetes mellitus; HR: hazard ratio; CI: confidence interval. Full article ">

24 pages, 4006 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Per- and Poly-Fluoroalkyl Substances, and Organophosphate Flame Retardants in the Upper Yangtze River: Occurrence, Spatiotemporal Distribution, and Risk Assessment

by Wen Sun, Zhiyou Fu, Yueyue Liu, Yingchen Bai, Yuyan Zhao, Chen Wang and Fengchang Wu

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 116; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020116 - 1 Feb 2025

Abstract

Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs), including per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) and organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs), have raised global concerns due to their persistence, bioaccumulation potential, and toxicity. This study presents a comprehensive investigation of the occurrence, spatiotemporal distribution, potential sources, and the [...] Read more.

Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs), including per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) and organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs), have raised global concerns due to their persistence, bioaccumulation potential, and toxicity. This study presents a comprehensive investigation of the occurrence, spatiotemporal distribution, potential sources, and the ecological and human health risks associated with 18 PFASs and 9 OPFRs in the surface waters of the upper Yangtze River, China. The water samples were collected from the main stream and five major tributaries (Min, Jinsha, Tuo, Jialing, and Wu Rivers) in 2022 and 2023. The total concentration of PFASs and OPFRs ranged from 16.07 to 927.19 ng/L, and 17.36 to 190.42 ng/L, respectively, with a consistently higher concentration observed in the main stream compared to the tributaries. Ultra-short-chain PFASs (e.g., TFMS) and halogenated OPFRs (e.g., TCPP) were the predominant compounds, likely originating from industrial discharges, wastewater effluents, and other anthropogenic sources. Ecological risk assessments indicated low-to-moderate risks at most sampling sites, with higher risks near wastewater discharge points. Human health risk evaluations suggested negligible non-carcinogenic risks but identified potential carcinogenic risks from OPFR exposure for adults at specific locations, particularly in Leshan city. This study highlights the importance of understanding the fate and impacts of PFASs and OPFRs in the upper Yangtze River, and provides valuable insights for developing targeted pollution control strategies and risk management measures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occurrence and Environmental Risks of Organic Pollutants in Aquatic Environment)

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Figure 1
Sampling locations in the Sichuan and Chongqing Reach of Yangtze River. Red dots represent stream sampling sites, and yellow triangles represent wastewater effluent. There were 13 surface water sampling sites (D1–D13) along 2022, and 17 surface water sampling sites (D1–D17) along the 2023. Full article ">Figure 2
Concentrations of the PFASs (A) and OPFRs (B) in the upper Yangtze River in 2022 and 2023. SW: surface water, EW: effluent wastewater. Box charts (bottom to top) presented the 5th, 25th, 50th, 75th, and 95th percentile values. The absence of a box indicates that the detection rate of the compound is less than 50%. Full article ">Figure 3
Total PFAS (A) and OPFR (B) concentrations (ng/L) in samples of Yangtze River in 2022 and 2023. For each figure, the upright bar refers to the main stream and the inverted bar refers to the tributaries. Full article ">Figure 4
Cumulative concentrations of PFASs and OPFRs in the samples collected during 2022 (A) and 2023 (B) in the upper Yangtze River. Full article ">Figure 5
Relative contributions of individual composition to the total PFASs (A) and OPFRs (B) in water samples from the upper Yangtze River. Full article ">Figure 6
Risk quotients of PFASs and OPFRs. (A) The total risk quotients (RQSTU). Ecological risks related to individual compounds in 2022 (B) and 2023 (C) for algae, crustaceans, and fish in each water sample. Full article ">Figure 7
Health risk assessment. (A) Non-carcinogenicity (HI) and (B) carcinogenicity risk (CR) in each water sample. Full article ">Figure 7 Cont.
Health risk assessment. (A) Non-carcinogenicity (HI) and (B) carcinogenicity risk (CR) in each water sample. Full article ">

11 pages, 209 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ethephon Poisoning: Clinical Characteristics and Outcomes

by Satariya Trakulsrichai, Kanokrat Chuayaupakarn, Phantakan Tansuwannarat, Panee Rittilert, Achara Tongpoo, Charuwan Sriapha and Winai Wananukul

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 115; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020115 - 31 Jan 2025

Abstract

Ethephon (2-chloroethylphosphonic acid) is a generally used plant growth regulator, but the data on its toxic effects, especially in humans, are very limited. This study was conducted to describe the clinical characteristics, management, and outcomes of patients exposed to products containing ethephon. We [...] Read more.

Ethephon (2-chloroethylphosphonic acid) is a generally used plant growth regulator, but the data on its toxic effects, especially in humans, are very limited. This study was conducted to describe the clinical characteristics, management, and outcomes of patients exposed to products containing ethephon. We performed an 8-year retrospective study using data from the Ramathibodi Poison Center database (2013–2020), which included 252 patients. Most patients were male, with a median age of 32 years. Almost all patients were exposed through ingestion, mainly in unintentional circumstances. The clinical presentations included local effects, gastrointestinal (GI), neurological, and respiratory symptoms. Some patients required hospital admission; specifically, seven patients received inotropic drugs, and six were intubated with ventilator support. Most patients had either no or only minor clinical effects. However, six patients experienced moderate/severe effects, and two patients died. Age, intentional exposure, and the presence of initial neurological symptoms could prognosticate moderate to fatal outcomes. In conclusion, exposure to ethephon predominantly resulted in no or minor effects, and GI symptoms were the most common clinical manifestation. The cholinergic toxic syndrome was not frequently observed. The mortality rate was very low. Patients presenting with factors associated with worse outcomes should be monitored closely for clinical deterioration and appropriately managed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drug Metabolism and Toxicological Mechanisms)

22 pages, 2953 KiB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Epigenetic Biomarkers Driven by Environmental Toxins Associated with Alzheimer’s Disease, Parkinson’s Disease, and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis in the United States: A Systematic Review

by Melanie Engstrom Newell, Anumitha Aravindan, Ayesha Babbrah and Rolf U. Halden

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 114; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020114 - 31 Jan 2025

Abstract

Environmental toxins and epigenetic changes have been linked to neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s Disease (AD), Parkinson’s Disease (PD), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). This paper aimed to (i) identify environmental toxins associated with AD, PD, and ALS, (ii) locate potential industrial sources of [...] Read more.

Environmental toxins and epigenetic changes have been linked to neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s Disease (AD), Parkinson’s Disease (PD), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). This paper aimed to (i) identify environmental toxins associated with AD, PD, and ALS, (ii) locate potential industrial sources of toxins in the United States (U.S.), and (iii) assess epigenetic changes driven by exposure to toxins reported by patients. Environmental factors and epigenetic biomarkers of neurodegeneration were compiled from 69 studies in the literature using Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta Analyses (PRISMA) and geographic information system approaches. Some 127 environmental toxins have been associated or putatively associated with AD, PD, or ALS, with four toxic metals (As, Cd, Mn, and Hg) common to all three of these neurodegenerative diseases. Environmental toxins associated with epigenetic changes (e.g., DNA methylation) in patients include air pollutants, metals, and organic chemicals (e.g., pesticides, mycotoxins, and cyanotoxins). Geographic analysis showed that study locations (e.g., U.S., Europe, and East Asia) were selected by researchers based on convenience of access rather than exposure risk and disease prevalence. We conclude that several toxins and epigenetic markers shared among neurodegenerative diseases could serve as attractive future targets guiding environmental quality improvements and aiding in early disease detection. Full article

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Graphical abstract
Full article ">Figure 1
Venn diagram identifying environmental factors and epigenetic changes common to Alzheimer’s Disease, Parkinson’s Disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Venn diagrams show the associations between AD, PD, and ALS with (a) environmental toxins and (b) epigenetic changes. Factors only associated with one neurodegenerative disease are shown in each outside circle (blue, red, or yellow text), whereas toxins shared by only two neurodegenerative diseases are shown in segments within two neurodegenerative disease circles (purple, orange, or green text). Toxins implicated in Alzheimer’s Disease, Parkinson’s Disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis are shown in the central shared segment (gray text). Full article ">Figure 2
At-risk populations by industrial source locations of environmental factors associated with Alzheimer’s Disease, Parkinson’s Disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Toxins associated with Alzheimer’s Disease (AD), Parkinson’s Disease (PD), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) are mapped geographically in ArcGIS. Toxins associated with all three neurodegenerative diseases are shown by gray triangles. Toxins associated with PD and ALS are shown by pink diamonds, AD and PD are green circles, and AD and ALS are shown with blue squares. Data on locations of toxin sources were taken from EPA’s Chemical Data Reporting for Industrial Processing and Use Report [<a href="#B28-toxics-13-00114" class="html-bibr">28</a>]. Full article ">Figure 3
Neurodegenerative disease prevalence rates in the United States. Prevalence rates (per 100,000 persons) of (a) Alzheimer’s Disease, (b), Parkinson’s Disease, and (c) amyotrophic lateral sclerosis are mapped geographically in ArcGIS. Prevalence rates are reported per 100,000 persons. Full article ">Figure 4
Trends of epigenetic biomarkers associated with exposure to environmental factors by time and dose for Alzheimer’s Disease, Parkinson’s Disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. (a) Studies of exposure to environmental toxins reported changes in epigenetic biomarker pattern (acetylation or active marker changes) outcomes that are known to be associated with neurodegenerative diseases. (b) Experimental models and human cohort or case–control studies of AD, PD, and ALS reported changes to epigenetic markers based on time and dose response. Full article ">Figure 5
Epigenetic biomarkers by tissue type and associated pathways in Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s Disease. (a) Biomarkers identified in the literature are grouped by epigenetic changes and tissue type. (b) Subject counts for patient or control specimens are plotted by biomarkers categorized by epigenetic changes associated with disease. (c) Biomarkers are further grouped by primary general or disease-specific function(s) and associated neurodegenerative disease. Full article ">

13 pages, 645 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Different Protocols on the Application of the Dithiothreitol Assay in Determining the Oxidative Potential of Ambient Particles

by Maja Jovanović, Marija Živković, Bojana Petrović, Saima Iram, Milena Jovašević-Stojanović and Svetlana Stevanović

Toxics 2025, 13(2), 113; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics13020113 - 30 Jan 2025

Abstract

Environmental particulate matter (PM) exposure has been widely recognized for its significant adverse effects on human health. Monitoring PM levels is one of the essential parameters of air quality assessment. However, PM mass concentration alone does not sufficiently explain its toxicological impacts and [...] Read more.

Environmental particulate matter (PM) exposure has been widely recognized for its significant adverse effects on human health. Monitoring PM levels is one of the essential parameters of air quality assessment. However, PM mass concentration alone does not sufficiently explain its toxicological impacts and effects on health. This study highlights the importance of oxidative potential (OP) as a promising metric for evaluating PM toxicity. It focuses on standardizing the dithiothreitol (DTT) assay as a tool for OP measurement. In order to investigate the impact of various extraction techniques, reagent concentrations, and assay conditions, four previously established protocols were tested without modification, while a novel protocol was introduced based on an extensive literature review. Results revealed strong positive correlations between the new and most established protocols. These findings highlight the significance of the new protocol in advancing the development of standardized methodologies for applying the DTT assay and demonstrating its reliability and relevance. While developing a standardized DTT assay involves addressing numerous parameters—from filter extraction to assay application—this research provides a solid base for achieving consistency in OP measurements and overcoming this critical issue. Full article

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Toxics, Volume 13, Issue 2 (February 2025) – 76 articles

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