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Petrogenesis and Tectonic Implications of the Granite Porphyry in the Sinongduo Ag-Pb-Zn Deposit, Central Tibet: Constraints from Geochronology, Geochemistry, and Sr-Nd Isotopes

Peng Zhang

^1,2,

Zhuang Li

^3,4,*,

Feng Zhao

³ and

Xinkai Liu

College of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, China

Sichuan Institute of Land Science and Technology, Chengdu 610074, China

School of Geography and Resource Science, Neijiang Normal University, Neijiang 641100, China

⁴

Key Laboratory of Continental Dynamics, Northwest University, Xi’an 710069, China

Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.

Minerals 2024, 14(7), 710; https://doi.org/10.3390/min14070710

Submission received: 11 June 2024 / Revised: 5 July 2024 / Accepted: 10 July 2024 / Published: 12 July 2024

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Genesis and Evolution of Pb-Zn-Ag Polymetallic Deposits: 2nd Edition)

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Abstract

The Paleocene ore deposits related to the India–Asia continental collision are widely distributed in the Gangdese metallogenic belt. Among these, Sinongduo is the first discovered epithermal Ag-Pb-Zn deposit in the Lhasa terrane. However, there is still controversy over the ore-forming magma in this deposit. This study mainly reports new zircon U-Pb isotopic ages, whole-rock geochemistry, and Sr-Nd isotopic data for the granite porphyry from the Sinongduo deposit, aiming to discuss the petrogenesis and tectonic setting of the granite porphyry and its genetic link between the Ag-Pb-Zn mineralization. The results show that zircon U-Pb analyses yield ages of 62.9 ± 0.5 Ma and 59.0 ± 0.7 Ma for the granite porphyry, indicating that it formed during the Paleocene period. The timing of the granite porphyry intrusion is contemporaneous with the mineralization, suggesting that it is most likely the ore-forming magma in the Sinongduo deposit. The granite porphyry has high SiO₂ and K₂O, moderate Al₂O₃, and low Na₂O, CaO, and FeO^T contents, and it displays significant enrichments in LREEs and LILEs and depletions in HREEs and HFSEs, with negative Eu anomaly. The granite porphyry is a peraluminous series and can be classified as S-type granite. Moreover, the granite porphyry shows relatively high ratios of (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr)_i and low values of ε_Nd(t). The geochemical and isotopic compositions of the granite porphyry from the Sinongduo area are similar to those of the upper continental crust, which suggests that the granite porphyry was most likely derived from the melting of the upper continental crust in the Lhasa terrane during the India–Asia collisional tectonic setting.

Keywords:

granite porphyry; petrogenesis; tectonic setting; Paleocene; Sinongduo; Gangdese

1. Introduction

The evolution of the Neo-Tethys and the India–Asia collision led to the formation of the Himalaya–Tibetan Orogen, which is considered a prominent tectonic event in Earth’s history [1,2,3,4]. The Lhasa terrane, an important region in the Tibetan Plateau, underwent complex subduction processes during the evolution of the Neo-Tethys and the subsequent India–Asia collision [5,6,7]. This region now showcases extensive volcanic formations such as the Linzizong volcanic successions and Gangdese batholith, located north of the Yarlung Zangbo suture zone [8]. These volcanic formations, dating between 65 and 40 million years ago, represent the magmatic response to the India–Asia continental collision and play a significant role in the geological makeup of the Lhasa terrane [9,10]. In addition to the Cenozoic porphyry Cu-Mo deposits found within the Gangdese metallogenic belt (GMB), a variety of other mineral deposits, like skarn-type, hydrothermal-type, and cryptoexplosive breccia-type Ag-Pb-Zn deposits, have been identified in the Lhasa terrane [11,12,13,14,15].

The Sinongduo deposit, located in central Tibet within the Linzizong volcanic successions of the GMB, is known as the first discovered epithermal Ag-Pb-Zn deposit. Its formal recognition occurred in 2010 following an extensive five-year survey and exploration effort, revealing Pb + Zn reserves exceeding 350,000 tons and Ag reserves surpassing 400 tons. The average grades of these ores are approximately 5% for Pb + Zn and 50 g/t for Ag. Previous studies on Sinongduo primarily emphasized its geological characteristics, mineral composition, alteration zone, geochronology, and source of ore-forming metals [16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24]. However, the ore-forming magma in this deposit has always been unclear. In this paper, we present new zircon U-Pb ages, major and trace elements, and Sr-Nd isotopic compositions for the granite porphyry, aiming to determine the timing of the magmatism and its link with the Ag-Pb-Zn mineralization at the Sinongduo deposit. Moreover, these results will refine our knowledge of the petrogenesis and tectonic setting of the granite porphyry in the Lhasa terrane.

2. Geological Background

The Tibetan Plateau (Figure 1a) is divided into the Qiangtang terrane, the Lhasa terrane, and the Himalayas from north to south, with the Jinsha (JSSZ), Longmu Tso-Shuanghu (LSSZ), Bangong-Nujiang (BNSZ), and Yarlung Zangbo (YZSZ) suture zones separating them (Figure 1b; [7,25]). The Lhasa terrane can be further classified into northern, central, and southern subterranes based on differences in basement rock and sedimentary cover (Figure 1b,c; [25]). The central Lhasa subterrane is mostly covered by Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary units, along with dispersed Mesozoic–Cenozoic volcanic sedimentary rocks [6,25,26,27]. These sedimentary units contain collision-related granitoids from the Paleocene–Eocene period, as well as subduction-related arc granitoids from the Late Triassic to Cretaceous period [28,29]. The volcanic–sedimentary rocks in the region consist of lower Cretaceous Zenong and Duoni formations [30,31], as well as Paleocene–Eocene Linzizong volcanic rocks [8,32]. The Linzizong volcanic successions erupted mainly from 69 to 43 Ma and are comprised of calc-alkaline andesitic flows, tuffs and breccias, and dacitic to rhyolitic ignimbrites [8,33]. Based on the duration of magmatic activity, these volcanic successions are subdivided into the lower Dianzhong (69–60 Ma), middle Nianbo (56–54 Ma), and upper Pana (52–43 Ma) formations [34,35,36]. Previous research has primarily focused on the Linzizong volcanic successions near Lhasa city [37,38] and the Linzhou basin [32,39]. Dianzhong volcanism is typically associated with late oceanic subduction and initial continental collision, while the Nianbo and Pana volcanic events are linked to the collision [36,40]. In addition to this, granitic rocks are prevalent in the Tibetan Plateau, including the extensive plutonic belt known as the Gangdese batholith [41,42]. Research shows that the Gangdese batholith was active from the Late Triassic to the Miocene period, experiencing three magmatic peaks during the Late Jurassic (ca. 170–150 Ma) [43], Early Cretaceous (ca. 125–100 Ma) [44], and Paleocene–Eocene [45,46,47] epochs. The lithologies found in the Gangdese batholith consist of granodiorite, diorite, granite porphyry, and monzogranite, commonly containing hornblende or biotite [47], with the majority being I-type granitoids [41,48,49].

The Gangdese porphyry copper belt (GPCB) is located in the southern Lhasa subterrane and has been the subject of extensive exploration and research [50,51]. There are three main mineralization phases identified in the area. The first phase, occurring between 180 and 160 Ma, is related to Neo-Tethys subduction and is associated with the Xiongcun porphyry Cu-Au deposit [52,53]. The second phase, occurring during 65–40 Ma, is related to the India–Asia collision and includes the Tangbula and Sharang porphyry Mo deposits [54], as well as the Mengya’a skarn Pb-Zn deposits [11]. The third phase, occurring between 20 and 10 Ma, is related to the post-collision between India and Asia and includes several porphyry-skarn mineralization events, such as the Jiama, Qulong, Bangpu, Chongjiang, Tinggong, Zhunuo, and Jiru Cu-Mo deposits [55,56,57,58]. In addition to the GPCB, there is also a distinct Ag-Pb-Zn metallogenic belt that runs parallel to it. This belt mainly consists of skarn and hydrothermal type Ag-Pb-Zn deposits, including cryptoexplosive breccia and epithermal deposits. The skarn type deposits in this belt include the Longmala, Lietinggang, and Leqingla deposits [59,60], while the hydrothermal Ag-Pb-Zn deposits mainly include the Narusongduo and Sinongduo deposits, which are predominantly found in the Linzizong volcanic rocks [21,61].

Figure 1. (a) Simplified map showing the location of the Himalayan–Tibetan orogeny; (b) tectonic framework of the Lhasa terrane (modified after [7]); (c) diagram showing the distribution of the magmatic rocks and the associated deposits in the Lhasa terrane (modified after [52]).

3. Deposit Geology

The Sinongduo deposit, situated in the southern margin of the central Lhasa subterrane about 170 km west of Xigaze (Figure 1c), encompasses three distinct orebodies: a hydrothermal vein-type Ag-Pb-Zn, a cryptoexplosive breccia-type Pb-Zn-Ag, and independent silver orebodies. The mineralization mainly occurred between 63.1 and 60.9 Ma based on the sericite Ar-Ar isotopic dating [21]. The Linzizong volcanic succession is prominently displayed throughout the Sinongduo district, which mainly comprise the rhyolite porphyry, crystal tuff, volcanic breccia, and dacite (Figure 2a). In this deposit, the ore-bearing wall rocks comprise rhyolite porphyry, crystal tuff, and volcanic breccia, while the intrusive rocks mainly consist of SE-trending granite porphyry and biotite granite porphyry. The exposed area of granite porphyry batholith is about 0.3 square kilometers, and granite porphyry, biotite granite porphyry, and rhyolite porphyry are in close spatial contact (Figure 2a). The granite porphyry at the Sinongduo deposit is intruded by the biotite granite porphyry vein, with the rhyolite porphyry overlying it.

The ore structures mainly consist of typical brecciated (Figure 3a) and veined structures (Figure 3b) formed by hydrothermal filling metasomasis, with a few banded and disseminated structures. The ore textures are mainly featured by hydrothermal metasomatism and crystallization, followed by textures formed by solid solution separation and pressure.

Mineralization is characterized by hypogene Ag-Pb-Zn sulfides, with sphalerite, galena, pyrite, and minor chalcopyrite being the main sulfide minerals present along with pearceite, argentite, pyrargyrite, acanthite, and traces of native silver (Figure 3c–i) [20]. Three mineralization stages have been identified based on the different minerals and their textural relationships, including the pre-ore stage, main-ore stage, and post-ore stage. The main-ore stage can be subdivided into three substages: galena ore substage, sphalerite ore substage, and silver minerals ore substage [21]. Alterations in the area are dominated by silicification, illitization, chalcedonization, sericitization, and carbonation [17], leading to the formation of alteration minerals such as illite, sericite, chalcedony, jasper, quartz, calcite, and minor kaolinite, adularia, and montmorillonite.

4. Samples and Methods

4.1. Sample Descriptions

In this study, the borehole sample is named according to the borehole number and depth of sampling collection. Eight granite porphyry samples (SND-G1 to SND-G8) for the geochemical analysis were collected from the surface outcrop (88°34′35″ E~88°34′36″ E, 29°58′18″ N~29°58′20″ N) (Figure 2a). Eight samples (1502-85, 1502-87, 1502-98, 1502-103, 1502-110, 1502-131, 1502-150, 1502-177) were collected at different depths from the borehole BZK1502 (Figure 2b). All the granite porphyry samples studied here were gathered for further examination, with most exhibiting weak sericitization and silicification. These granite porphyries range in color from gray to white, displaying a porphyritic texture and a solid structure (Figure 4a,b). The dominant phenocryst minerals consist of potassium feldspar (15%–20%) and quartz (20%–25%), along with trace amounts of biotite (<2%). The diameter of potassium feldspar is about 0.3–1.0 mm, accompanied by weak sericitization (Figure 4c,d). The anhedral quartz grains are 0.2–0.5 mm in diameter, while biotite forms dark elongated crystals measuring 0.2–0.3 mm in length (Figure 4e). Phenocrysts are typically dispersed within a matrix of felsic minerals, primarily comprising quartz (20%–25%) and potassium feldspar (10%), alongside a minor percentage of biotite (3%). The accessory minerals mainly include apatite, magnetite, zircon, and titanite.

4.2. Analytical Methods

Following petrographic analysis, two examples of granite porphyry (1502-98 and SND-G1) were chosen for zircon U-Pb dating utilizing laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). Zircons were selected, employing standard procedures to crush the rocks and concentrate zircons via heavy liquid and magnetic techniques. Subsequently, pure zircons were handpicked under a binocular microscope at the Laboratory of the Geological Team of Hebei Province, Langfang, China. Cathodoluminescence (CL) images were captured at the Electron Microprobe Laboratory, Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences (CAGS), Beijing, using an operating voltage of 15 kV and a current of 4 nA. Zircon U-Pb isotope analyses were performed using LA-ICP-MS at the State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing, China. The calibration of the zircon U-Pb isotope ratio was carried out with the Zircon 91500 external standard, with NIST 610 glass serving as the reference standard and ²⁹Si used as an internal standard for U, Th, and Pb calibration. The analytical procedures closely followed those outlined in previous studies [62,63].

Sixteen samples were chosen for analysis in this study, with major and trace elements examined using whole-rock analysis methods. The samples were processed at the Analytical Laboratory of the Beijing Research Institute of Uranium Geology in China. To prepare the samples, they were pulverized down to a size of less than 200 mesh using an agate ring mill for consistency and accuracy. The major element concentrations were analyzed from fused glass disks of powdered samples using an AB104L and Axios-mAX sequential X-ray Fluorescence Spectrom. The accuracy of major elements was better than ±1%. Trace elements were analyzed using an ELEMENT 2-XR ICPMS system on solutions FeO by titrating with potassium dichromate solution. See [64] for the detailed analytical procedures.

The isotopic compositions of the whole-rock samples were determined using an ISOPROBE-T system. The separation of Sr was achieved using the DCTA complex, while Nd was separated from the REE fractions using cation-exchange resin and α-HIBA as the eluent. Mass fractionation corrections were made for the ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr and ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd ratios using known reference values. During the analyses, the mean ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratio of the NBS987 standard sample was 0.710250 ± 7, and the mean ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd ratio of the JMC standard sample was 0.512109 ± 3 [65]. The analytical procedures for Sr-Nd isotopic analysis used in this study were similar to those described by [66].

5. Results

5.1. Zircon U-Pb Ages

Zircons extracted from two granite porphyry samples (SND-G1 and 1502-98) were studied in order to determine their geological ages. The analysis, which included cathodoluminescence (CL) imaging, revealed that most zircon grains exhibited variable narrow oscillatory zones (Figure 5a,b), while a few grains had a homogeneous internal structure. The zircon LA-ICP-MS U-Pb analytical data can be found in Table S1, with corresponding concordia and weighted mean diagrams shown in Figure 6. Additionally, the zircon crystals exhibited Th concentrations ranging from 286 to 5963 ppm and U concentrations ranging from 208 to 2792 ppm, resulting in Th/U ratios of 0.6 to 6.4 (average value of 1.7), indicating a magmatic origin [67,68]. Consequently, the ages of the zircons are likely indicative of the crystallization ages of the granite porphyry.

A total of 20 zircon spots from sample SND-G1 showed ²⁰⁷Pb corrected ²⁰⁶Pb/²³⁸U ages ranging from 60.2 ± 2.3 to 64.0 ± 1.6 Ma, with a weighted mean age of 62.9 ± 0.5 Ma (MSWD = 0.8) (Supplementary Table S1; Figure 6a,b). The analyses were mostly concordant, indicating relatively accurate results for the sample. Similarly, sample 1502-98 yielded 19 concordant analyses with ²⁰⁷Pb-corrected ²⁰⁶Pb/²³⁸U ages varying from 56.5 ± 1.1 to 62.3 ± 1.2 Ma and a weighted mean age of 59.0 ± 0.7 Ma (MSWD = 1.8) (Table S1; Figure 6c,d). Both samples have similar age ranges and dating accuracies, despite a slightly higher MSWD value for sample 1502-98 compared to SND-G1.

5.2. Whole-Rock Geochemistry

Bulk-rock chemical compositions of the analyzed granite porphyry samples are listed in Supplementary Table S2. The granite porphyry samples analyzed in this study exhibit varying degrees of alteration as indicated by field and petrographical observations (Figure 4), along with varying loss on ignition (LOI) values ranging from 1.31 to 2.97 wt.% (Table S2). These granite porphyry samples displayed high SiO₂ (74.47–79.06 wt.%) and K₂O (4.32–4.97 wt.%), moderate Al₂O₃ (9.08–14.15 wt.%), and uniformly low Na₂O (0.65–1.88 wt.%), CaO (0.02–0.98 wt.%), and FeO^T (1.33–1.76 wt.%), contributing to total alkalis (Na₂O + K₂O) values between 5.32 and 6.74 wt.%. Additionally, the samples contained low levels of Fe₂O₃ (0.11–0.38 wt.%) and MgO (0.15–0.32 wt.%), with low contents of Cr (5.16–7.82 ppm) and Ni (1.95–3.32 ppm). The granite porphyries plot within the granite fields on the total alkalis versus silica (TAS) diagram (Figure 7a). The alumina saturation index (ASI = mol. Al₂O₃/(CaO + Na₂O + K₂O) values of these rocks are in the range of 1.08–2.00, suggesting that they are strongly peraluminous series (Figure 7b).

The total REE concentrations of the samples analyzed in this study range from 114 to 217 ppm, with an average value of 158 ppm. These granite porphyries exhibit a significant enrichment in light rare earth elements (LREEs) over heavy rare earth elements (HREEs), as shown in the chondrite-normalized REE patterns (Figure 8a). Interestingly, there are no discernible Ce anomalies with Ce/Ce* ratios ranging from 0.83 to 1.12 and negative Eu anomalies with Eu/Eu* ratios from 0.23 to 0.59 (Figure 8a; Table S2). On the primitive mantle-normalized incompatible trace element patterns (Figure 8b), these samples are enriched in the large-ion lithophile elements (LILEs, e.g., Rb, Ba) and LREEs and are depleted in the high-field-strength elements (HFSEs, e.g., Nb, Ta, and Ti). The normalized REE and incompatible element abundance curves of the studied granite porphyries are similar to those of the Sinongduo volcanic rocks and Paleocene granites, indicating that they originated from similar primary magma [72].

5.3. Sr-Nd Isotopic Compositions

The whole-rock Sr-Nd isotopic compositions of the representative samples can be found in Supplementary Table S3 and are illustrated in Figure 9. The initial Sr and Nd isotopic ratios of all the samples were determined to be 62.9 Ma and 59.0 Ma, respectively.

The six granite porphyry samples examined in this study displayed consistent whole-rock initial ratios for both (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr) and (¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd)_i. The average (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr) ratio was calculated to be 0.70841, ranging from 0.70764 to 0.70893, while the average (¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd)_i ratio was 0.51219, varying between 0.51217 and 0.51222. Furthermore, all samples exhibited negative ε_Nd(t) values that fell within a narrow range between −6.7 and −7.6, with an average value of −7.2. The calculated single-stage Nd model ages (TDM) ranged from 1106 to 1188 Ma, whereas the two-stage Nd model ages (T_2DM) spanned from 1413 to 1488 Ma.

6. Discussion

6.1. Timing of Magmatism and Its Link with the Ag-Pb-Zn Mineralization

The ages of the two granite porphyry samples analyzed using LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb dating are 62.9 ± 0.5 Ma and 59.0 ± 0.7 Ma, respectively (Figure 6a–d). This is distinct from the zircon U-Pb age of the biotite granite porphyry dated by Shi et al. (2017) (12 Ma; [79]). The Miocene biotite granite porphyry belongs to the post mineralization magmatic intrusion that plays a destructive role in the Ag-Pb-Zn ore body. The newly obtained isotopic ages in this study suggest that the granite porphyry in the Sinongduo deposit was emplaced between 59.0 and 62.9 Ma, corresponding to the Paleocene epoch. This timing coincides with the formation of ore-bearing volcanic rocks in the same deposit, such as the rhyolite porphyry (64.2–65.0 Ma), crystal tuff (62.1–65.2 Ma), volcanic breccia (63.1–64.8 Ma), and dacite (61.9–62.4 Ma) (reference [71]). Moreover, Li et al. [21] reported Ar-Ar isochron ages of 60.9 ± 0.7 Ma to 63.1 ± 0.7 Ma for the quartz-sericite-illite-sulfide veins related to the main mineralization event. These findings indicate that the Ag-Pb-Zn mineralization in the Sinongduo deposit coincided with the emplacement of the granite porphyry and volcanics, suggesting a Paleocene age for the volcanism-magmatism and mineralization in the Sinongduo deposit. Therefore, the granite porphyry magmatic intrusion may have a genetic link between the Ag-Pb-Zn mineralizations, which likely provides the ore-forming magma for the Sinongduo deposit.

6.2. Classification of the Granite Porphyry

The granite porphyry from the Sinongduo deposit is characterized by its strong peraluminous composition and its classification within the S-type magma field (Figure 7b and Figure 10). This sets it apart from the I-type Gangdese batholith (58–66 Ma) and coeval volcanic rocks (59–65 Ma) found in the central Lhasa terrane [72]. Moreover, the features of low 10,000*Ga/Al ratios (2.9–4.4) and Zr + Nb + Ce + Y values (237–367 ppm) indicate that the Sinongduo granite porphyries also exhibit distinctions from the A-type granites [80].

According to Chappell and White [81,82], S-type granites are characterized by the following: (1) high peraluminous nature with ASI > 1.1, (2) presence of more than 1% CIPW normative corundum, and (3) limited to elevated SiO₂ levels with relatively decreased Na₂O (usually less than 3.2%) but increased K₂O (around 5%) content. The composition of the Sinongduo granite porphyry indicates a composition typical of S-type granite affinity, with high SiO₂ and K₂O contents and low Na₂O content. The ASI value falling between 1.08 and 2.00 further supports this classification. The Sinongduo granite porphyries exhibit higher corundum contents, ranging from 1.07 to 7.32%, as calculated by CIPW analysis, compared to the depleted I-type series [83].

The categorization of the Sinongduo granite porphyries as S-type is further corroborated by their whole-rock initial ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr isotopic ratios (ranging from 0.708 to 0.709). This is because Sr isotopes are more radiogenic in S-type granites, which typically display initial ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr values greater than 0.708 [83]. In addition, as shown in the Al₂O₃-(Na₂O + K₂O) versus CaO versus FeO^T + MgO diagram (Figure 10), all the Sinongduo granite porphyries are plotted into the S-type field, similar to the Paleocene granites and Sinongduo coeval volcanic rocks (61.9–65.2 Ma).

6.3. Magma Source and Petrogenesis

Our examination of the granite porphyry samples reveals that they underwent a minor sericite alteration (Figure 4c,d). The loss-on-ignition (LOI) results indicate that the granite porphyry has a minor level of alteration, with values ranging from 1.31 to 2.97 wt.% and an average of 2.37 wt.%. The geochemical composition can be effectively used as an indicator for tracing back to the magma source because of its consistent oxide content. Furthermore, the samples display consistent trends in their rare earth element (REE) and trace element patterns (Figure 8a,b), demonstrating the maintained intrinsic geochemical properties [84].

The high SiO₂ contents observed in the Sinongduo granite porphyry samples are consistent with the chemical characteristics of high silica granites (HSGs), a classification typically reserved for granitic rocks exhibiting SiO₂ concentrations greater than 70% [83]. The HSFs are believed to originate through a direct process involving extensive fractional crystallization of their primitive mafic parent magmas [85]. The origin of peraluminous geochemistry in granite porphyry is an important question that needs consideration. It is crucial to determine whether this geochemistry originated directly from the source region or if it developed through processes such as assimilation and fractional crystallization (AFC) from a more mafic parent rock [86]. Previous studies have shown that the Dianzhong volcanic rocks belong to the I-type rocks that are formed from a combination of mantle wedge materials and a crustal component via the AFC processes [8,10,35]. However, the Sinongduo granite porphyry display notably low concentrations of CaO (0.02–0.98 wt.%), MgO (0.15–0.32 wt.%), Na₂O (0.65–1.88 wt.%), FeO^T (1.33–1.76 wt.%), Ni (1.95–3.32 ppm), Cr (5.16–7.82 ppm), and Co (2.65–4.01 ppm), along with a radiogenic Sr isotope composition, in contrast to the Dianzhong I-type series [35,87]. Therefore, it is suggested that the magma source of these granite porphyries is unlikely to be linked to partial melting processes of either the mantle wedge or the mafic lower continental crust (LCC).

Moreover, the initial ratios of ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr ratios and ε_Nd(t) in the granite porphyries do not exhibit a reliable correlation with SiO₂ concentrations (Figure 11a,b), thus hindering substantial crustal assimilation. In terms of fractional crystallization, high-field-strength elements like Zr, Ta, and Nb are employed to determine the extent of fractional crystallization [88]. The concentrations of Nb and Ta are positively correlated with the extent of fractional crystallization, suggesting that as more fractional crystallization occurs, the concentrations of these elements increase. Conversely, the ratios of Nb/Ta and Zr concentration decrease as the process of fractional crystallization progresses [88]. The Nb/Ta ratios observed in the Sinongduo granite porphyry resemble those found in the upper continental crust (UCC) but differ from the lower continental crust (LCC) or basin continental crust (UCC) (Figure 11c,d), indicating that these granite porphyries did not undergo strongly fractional crystallization and the geochemistry of these magmatic rocks mirrors the composition of their source region.

All the studied granite porphyries exhibit nearly overlapping patterns with that of the UCC (Figure 8a,b), suggesting higher levels of LREE compared to the LCC and Indian Ocean sediments. It is observed that the granite porphyries exhibit notable negative Eu anomalies (Eu/Eu* = 0.23 to 0.59, Figure 8a). This trend is consistent with the Eu anomalies of the UCC (average Eu/Eu* = 0.65) [89] but contrasts with the positive Eu anomalies of the LCC (average Eu/Eu* = 1.14) [88], which suggests a distinct geochemical signature that aligns more closely with the UCC than the LCC. Additionally, the Sr-Nd isotope compositions of the granite porphyry rocks, including the Sinongduo volcanic rocks and Paleocene granitoids, are within the field of the UCC, suggesting UCC affinity (Figure 9).

In conclusion, it is proposed that the Sinongduo granite porphyry originated from a sedimentary upper continental crust source due to its geochemical similarities with the upper continental crust. This suggests that these rocks were formed through melting processes associated with the UCC rather than from the more mafic lower continental crust or oceanic crust.

6.4. Tectonic Implications

Previous studies have mainly proposed three potential scenarios for the S-type granitic rocks: (1) crustal anatexis [90], (2) crustal extension [91], and (3) extraction from the shallow andesitic magma via fractional crystallization process [92]. Barbarin (1999) suggested the necessity of a deeply buried metasedimentary source for the formation of S-type magma through crustal anatexis [93]. Moreover, the thickened crust mechanism could be accountable for the development of highly peraluminous S-type granites in the post-collisional tectonic environment [93,94].

Most published studies have supported that the collision ages of India–Asia range from Late Cretaceous to Oligocene and that the onset collision age is 55 ± 5 Ma [95,96], showing a collisional tectonic setting [36]. In the Paleocene, the Lhasa terrane was situated in a collisional rather than post-collisional tectonic setting [93], making it inappropriate to link the rocks with post-collisional highly peraluminous S-type granites. In addition, a two-stage rollback of the subducted oceanic crust was proposed by Collins and Richards [91] to induce a crustal extension mechanism for the formation of S-type granite, which is linked to high temperature and low-pressure metamorphic complexes, as well as a considerable transient heat influx to the crust. However, the Sinongduo magmatic and volcanic rocks lack such metamorphic complexes. Therefore, the crustal extension mechanism cannot be attributed to the Sinongduo granite porphyry. Additionally, the extraction mechanism from the andesitic magma through fractional crystallization process cannot be applicable due to the low degree of fractional crystallization observed in the investigated granite porphyries.

7. Conclusions

(1): LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb age shows that the granite porphyry was formed at 59.0–62.9 Ma, consistent with the timing of the mineralization, indicating that the granite porphyry intrusion is most likely the ore-forming magma in the Sinongduo deposit.
(2): The geochemical and isotopic data suggest that the granite porphyry was a strongly peraluminous series which belongs to S-type granite.
(3): The geochemical and isotopic characteristics of the granite porphyry are similar to those of the upper continental crust, which implies that the granite porphyry from the Sinongduo deposit likely originated from the melting of the upper continental crust in the India–Asia collisional tectonic setting.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/min14070710/s1: Table S1. LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb isotopic analyses for the granite porphyries from the Sinongduo deposit; Table S2. Major oxides (wt.%) and trace element (ppm) compositions for the Sinongduo granite porphyries; Table S3. Whole-rock Sr-Nd isotopic compositions for the granite porphyry in Sinongduo deposit.

Author Contributions

Writing—original draft preparation, P.Z. and Z.L.; funding acquisition, Z.L. and F.Z.; investigation and methodology, Z.L.; supervision, F.Z. and X.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was financially supported by the Natural Science Foundation of Sichuan Province (2023NSFSC0783), the Opening Foundation of State Key Laboratory of Continental Dynamics, Northwest University (23LCD01), and the National College Student Innovation and Entrepreneurship Training Project (X2023006).

Data Availability Statement

Our research data can be found in Supplementary Materials.

Acknowledgments

We thank the three anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments and suggestions to further improve this manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 2. The simplified geological map (a) and lithostratigraphy of borehole BZK1502 (b) of the Sinongduo deposit (modified after [20]).

Figure 3. The hand specimen photographs and photomicrographs showing the main ore structure and textures in the mineral assemblages from the Sinongduo deposit. (a) The rhyolite porphyry and crystal tuff with sphalerite, galena, and pyrite sulfide minerals; (b) the rhyolite porphyry cut by the sphalerite–galena vein; (c) the chalcopyrite in the sphalerite; (d) the euhedral pyrite in the quartz; (e) the galena and sphalerite; (f) the pearceite and argentite; (g) the hematite and pearceite developed in the pyrite; (h) the acanthite in the jasper; (i) the pyrargyrite developed in pyrite fractures. Abbreviations: Sp, sphalerite; Gn, galena; Py, pyrite; Ccp, chalcopyrite; Arn, argentite; Pea, pearceite; Hem, hematite; Aca, acanthite; Pyr, pyrargyrite; III, illite; Jas, jasper; Ser, sericite; Chl, chlorite; Q, quartz.

Figure 4. (a) The field relationship of rocks, (b) hand specimen photograph, and (c–e) cross-polarized photomicrographs of the granite porphyry in the Sinongduo deposit. Abbreviations: Kfs—potassium feldspar; Q—quartz; Ser—sericite; Bt—biotite.

Figure 5. Representative cathodoluminescence images of zircon grains for the (a) SND-G1 and (b) 1502-98 granite porphyry samples from the Sinongduo deposit. The yellow circles are 32 μm in diameter and show the location of the U-Pb analytical sites.

Figure 6. LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb concordia and weighted mean age diagrams of samples (a,b) SND-G1 and (c,d) 1502-98 for the Sinongduo granite porphyry.

Figure 7. Geochemical diagrams for the granite porphyry from the Sinongduo deposit. (a) SiO₂ versus Na₂O + K₂O diagram after [69]; (b) A/NK versus A/CNK diagram after [70]. Data for the Sinongduo volcanic rocks are from [71]; data for the Paleocene granites are from [72].

Figure 8. (a) The chondrite-normalized REE patterns and (b) primitive mantle normalized trace element patterns for the Sinongduo granite porphyry. Data for the chondrite and primitive mantle normalization are from [73], data for the Indian Ocean sediments, UCC, and LCC are from [74], Sinongduo volcanic rock data are from [71], and Paleocene granite data are from [72]. Abbreviations: UCC, upper continental crust; LCC, lower continental crust.

Figure 9. The Sr-Nd isotopic compositions for the granite porphyry from the Sinongduo deposit. Data for the Indian Ocean MORB, UCC, and LCC are from [75,76,77]. Data for global subducting sediment (GLOSS) are from [78]. Data for the Sinongduo volcanic rocks are from [71]; data for the Paleocene granites are from [72].

Figure 10. Al₂O₃-(Na₂O + K₂O) versus CaO versus FeO^T + MgO diagram (after [81]). Data for the Paleocene I-type volcanic rocks are from [32,33]; other data from the literature are from [10,71,72].

Figure 11. (a) SiO₂ versus ε_Nd(t), (b) SiO₂ versus (⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr)_i, (c) Nb/Ta versus Zr, and (d) Nb/Ta versus Nb diagrams (after [88]. Data for the BCC are from [74]; other data sources are the same as that in the Figure 9. Abbreviations: UCC, upper continental crust; LCC, lower continental crust; BCC, basin continental crust.

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Zhang, P.; Li, Z.; Zhao, F.; Liu, X. Petrogenesis and Tectonic Implications of the Granite Porphyry in the Sinongduo Ag-Pb-Zn Deposit, Central Tibet: Constraints from Geochronology, Geochemistry, and Sr-Nd Isotopes. Minerals 2024, 14, 710. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14070710

AMA Style

Zhang P, Li Z, Zhao F, Liu X. Petrogenesis and Tectonic Implications of the Granite Porphyry in the Sinongduo Ag-Pb-Zn Deposit, Central Tibet: Constraints from Geochronology, Geochemistry, and Sr-Nd Isotopes. Minerals. 2024; 14(7):710. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14070710

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zhang, Peng, Zhuang Li, Feng Zhao, and Xinkai Liu. 2024. "Petrogenesis and Tectonic Implications of the Granite Porphyry in the Sinongduo Ag-Pb-Zn Deposit, Central Tibet: Constraints from Geochronology, Geochemistry, and Sr-Nd Isotopes" Minerals 14, no. 7: 710. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14070710

APA Style

Zhang, P., Li, Z., Zhao, F., & Liu, X. (2024). Petrogenesis and Tectonic Implications of the Granite Porphyry in the Sinongduo Ag-Pb-Zn Deposit, Central Tibet: Constraints from Geochronology, Geochemistry, and Sr-Nd Isotopes. Minerals, 14(7), 710. https://doi.org/10.3390/min14070710

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