[go: up one dir, main page]
More Web Proxy on the site http://driver.im/
Next Issue
Volume 15, January-2
Previous Issue
Volume 14, December
You seem to have javascript disabled. Please note that many of the page functionalities won't work as expected without javascript enabled.
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
3.4
3.1
Journals
Buildings
Volume 15
Issue 1
share announcement

Buildings, Volume 15, Issue 1 (January-1 2025) – 149 articles

  • Issues are regarded as officially published after their release is announced to the table of contents alert mailing list.
  • You may sign up for e-mail alerts to receive table of contents of newly released issues.
  • PDF is the official format for papers published in both, html and pdf forms. To view the papers in pdf format, click on the "PDF Full-text" link, and use the free Adobe Reader to open them.
Order results
Result details
Section
Show export options expand_more Show export options expand_less
Select all
Export citation of selected articles as:
23 pages, 949 KiB  
Review
Review of Prediction Models for Chloride Ion Concentration in Concrete Structures
by Jiwei Ma, Qiuwei Yang, Xinhao Wang, Xi Peng and Fengjiang Qin
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 149; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010149 - 6 Jan 2025
Viewed by 317
Abstract
Chloride ion concentration significantly impacts the durability of reinforced concrete, particularly regarding corrosion. Accurately assessing how this concentration varies with the age of structures is crucial for ensuring their safety and longevity. Recently, several predictive models have emerged to analyze chloride ion concentration [...] Read more.
Chloride ion concentration significantly impacts the durability of reinforced concrete, particularly regarding corrosion. Accurately assessing how this concentration varies with the age of structures is crucial for ensuring their safety and longevity. Recently, several predictive models have emerged to analyze chloride ion concentration over time, classified into empirical models and machine learning models based on their data processing techniques. Empirical models directly relate chloride ion concentration to the age of concrete through specific functions. Their primary advantage lies in their low data requirements, making them convenient for engineering use. However, these models often fail to account for multiple influencing factors, which can limit their accuracy. Conversely, machine learning models can handle various factors simultaneously, providing a more detailed understanding of how chloride concentration evolves. When adequately trained with sufficient experimental data, these models generally offer superior prediction accuracy compared to mathematical models. The downside is that they necessitate a larger dataset for training, which can complicate their practical application. Future research could focus on combining machine learning and empirical models, leveraging their respective strengths to achieve a more precise evaluation of chloride ion concentration in relation to structural age. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete in the Digital Age: Advanced Simulations for Structural Innovation)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>PRISMA flow diagram.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>The basic structure of DT.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>The basic structure of SVM.</p> Full article ">
17 pages, 4321 KiB  
Article
Optimization of Anti-Scour Device Combined with Perforated Baffle and Ring-Wing Plate Based on a Multi-Factor Orthogonal Experiment
by Yan Wang, Rongjun Liao, Pei Yuan and Jinchao Chen
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 148; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010148 - 6 Jan 2025
Viewed by 244
Abstract
In this paper, a new anti-scour device combined with a perforated baffle and ring-wing plate is proposed to enhance the traditional method for better protection of bridge piers from local scour. Based on computational fluid dynamics (CFD), the orthogonal experiments investigated the general [...] Read more.
In this paper, a new anti-scour device combined with a perforated baffle and ring-wing plate is proposed to enhance the traditional method for better protection of bridge piers from local scour. Based on computational fluid dynamics (CFD), the orthogonal experiments investigated the general laws of the influence of the main factors, such as the ratio of baffle perforated, the position of baffle, and the height of ring-wing plate on the anti-scour effect. Under the protection of the combined device, the maximum scour depth reduction rate in front of the pier is between 65.18% and 81.01%, while that at the side of the pier is between 52.63% and 68.42%. Especially when the perforated ratio is 20%, the baffle is 2d (d is diameter of the pier) away from the pier, and the ring-wing plate is located at 1/3 of water depth, the anti-scour effect is the best. Also, the flow field around the pier under the protection of the combined device is further investigated. The results show that the structure blocks the down-flow actively and diverts and dissipates the flow energy to decrease flow below the critical velocity of sediment. Thus, the device combined with perforated baffle and ring-wing plate has a prominent anti-scour effect and provides a basis for further studies and engineering application. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Technologies for Urban and Architectural Design)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Grid element.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Boundary conditions of CFD model.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Schematic diagram of combined device.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Comparisons of flow fields near river bed. (The arrows in the figure represent the direction of the flow lines. The same below).</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Vertical Water Flow Streamlines and Flow Velocities in Front of the Pier.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Three-dimensional pattern of scour hole around pier.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Pattern of local scour hole. (<b>a</b>) Local scour hole of numerical simulation; (<b>b</b>) local scour hole of physical experiment.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Maximum scour depth reduction rate.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Relationship between factors and range.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Influence of S on maximum scour depth.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Influence of L on maximum scour depth.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Influence of H on maximum scour depth.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>The streamlines and velocity contour near the bed: (<b>a</b>) single pier, (<b>b</b>) pier with combined device.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>The streamlines and velocity contour on the vertical plane: (<b>a</b>) single pier, (<b>b</b>) pier with combined device.</p> Full article ">
18 pages, 6340 KiB  
Article
Hysteretic Behavior Study on the RBS Connection of H-Shape Columns with Middle-Flanges or Wide-Flange H-Shape Beams
by Saleem Mohammed Ali Ahmed Al-Saeedi, Linfeng Lu, Osama Zaid Yahya Al-Ansi and Saddam Ali
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 147; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010147 - 6 Jan 2025
Viewed by 239
Abstract
Existing research on reduced beam section (RBS) connections in steel frames rarely addresses H-shaped beams with middle and wide flanges. Therefore, this study investigates the hysteretic behavior of RBS connections in H-shaped columns connected to H-shaped beams with middle and wide flanges. Using [...] Read more.
Existing research on reduced beam section (RBS) connections in steel frames rarely addresses H-shaped beams with middle and wide flanges. Therefore, this study investigates the hysteretic behavior of RBS connections in H-shaped columns connected to H-shaped beams with middle and wide flanges. Using finite element analysis, the influence of key parameters (a, b, and c, where “a” represents the unweakened beam flange extension length, “b” represents the weakened beam flange length, and “c” represents the weakened beam flange depth, respectively) on structural performance was evaluated, focusing on rotational stiffness, load-carrying capacity, plastic rotation capacity, and ductility. The results indicate that increasing a enhances initial rotational stiffness and load capacity but reduces plastic rotation and ductility, making lower a values (near 0.5bf) optimal for ductile performance. Similarly, higher b values (up to 0.85bf) marginally reduce stiffness and load capacity, improving plastic rotation capacity, with a greater benefit in wide-flange beams. Meanwhile, a lower c value (around 0.20bf) offered balanced performance, with higher c values decreasing stiffness and load capacity but enhancing ductility. Overall, wider flanges improve plastic rotation and ductility but slightly decrease rotational stiffness, providing insights to guide RBS connection designs for seismic resilience. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Studies on Steel Structures)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>RBS connection details [<a href="#B19-buildings-15-00147" class="html-bibr">19</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Calculation diagram and model boundary conditions. (<b>a</b>) Diagram; (<b>b</b>) boundary conditions.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Mesh of a specimen model (3000 mm × 3600 mm).</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Stress–strain model.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>SP5 specimen. (<b>a</b>) Schematic diagram of dimensions; (<b>b</b>) FE model.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>P–Δ curves of SP5 specimen. (<b>a</b>) Test; (<b>b</b>) ABAQUS.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>SPS-2 specimen. (<b>a</b>) Schematic diagram of dimensions; (<b>b</b>) FE model.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>P–Δ curves of SPS-2 specimen. (<b>a</b>) Test; (<b>b</b>) ABAQUS.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Failure modes of SPS-2 specimen. (<b>a</b>) Test; (<b>b</b>) ABAQUS.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Stress contour plot of A series joints at failure time.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>M-θ hysteretic curve and skeleton curve of A series specimens.</p> Full article ">Figure 11 Cont.
<p>M-θ hysteretic curve and skeleton curve of A series specimens.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Stress contour plot of B series joints at failure time.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>M-θ hysteretic curve and skeleton curve of B series specimens.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Stress contour plot of C series joints at failure time.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>M-θ hysteretic curve and skeleton curve of C series specimens.</p> Full article ">
18 pages, 3718 KiB  
Article
Life Cycle Assessment of a Structural Insulated Panel Modular House in New Zealand
by Aflah Alamsah Dani, Ran Feng, Zhiyuan Fang and Krishanu Roy
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010146 - 6 Jan 2025
Viewed by 260
Abstract
Innovative solutions are essential to meet the increasing demand for housing in New Zealand. These innovations must also be sustainable, given the significant contribution of the building and construction sectors to global carbon emissions (25–40%) and, specifically, to New Zealand’s gross carbon emissions [...] Read more.
Innovative solutions are essential to meet the increasing demand for housing in New Zealand. These innovations must also be sustainable, given the significant contribution of the building and construction sectors to global carbon emissions (25–40%) and, specifically, to New Zealand’s gross carbon emissions (20%). This research aims to analyse the environmental impacts of a structural insulated panel (SIP) modular house and evaluate this innovative approach as a sustainable solution to the current housing issue. A life cycle assessment (LCA) was conducted using the New Zealand-specific tool LCAQuick V3.6. The analysis considered seven environmental impact indicators, namely, global warming potential (GWP), ozone depletion potential (ODP), acidification potential (AP), eutrophication potential (EP), photochemical ozone creation potential (POCP), abiotic depletion potential for elements (ADPE), and abiotic depletion potential for fossil fuels (ADPF), with a cradle-to-cradle system boundary. Focusing on the embodied carbon of the SIP modular house, the study revealed that the whole-of-life embodied carbon was 347.15 kg CO2 eq/m2, including Module D, and the upfront carbon was 285.08 kg CO2 eq/m2. The production stage (Modules A1–A3) was identified as the most significant source of carbon emissions due to substantial energy consumption in activities such as sourcing raw materials, transportation, and final product manufacturing. Specifically, the study found that SIP wall and roof panels were the most significant contributors to the house’s overall embodied carbon, with SIP roof panels contributing 25% and SIP wall panels contributing 19%, collectively accounting for 44%. Hence, the study underscored the SIP modular house as a promising sustainable solution to the housing crisis while emphasising the inclusion of operational carbon in further research to fully understand its potential. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cold-Formed Steel Structures)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Research workflow.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>The selected system boundary in this study.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>A 3D view model of the SIP modular house: (<b>a</b>) front view; and (<b>b</b>) back view.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>A house plan of the SIP modular house.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>SIP wall panel connection to floor [<a href="#B29-buildings-15-00146" class="html-bibr">29</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Percentage contributions to environmental impacts by each building life cycle stage.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Embodied carbon analysis of the SIP modular house.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Embodied carbon analysis for each module of the SIP modular house.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Top 10 building materials’ contributions to the overall GWP results.</p> Full article ">
25 pages, 9570 KiB  
Article
The Effect of Recycled Crushed Brick Aggregate on the Physical–Mechanical Properties of Earth Blocks
by Carlos Alberto Casapino-Espinoza, José Manuel Gómez-Soberón and María Consolación Gómez-Soberón
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 145; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010145 - 6 Jan 2025
Viewed by 370
Abstract
The use of different components, such as alternative aggregates, represents an innovation in construction. According to various studies, these components improve certain properties of the elements that incorporate them. Specifically, recycled construction aggregates (RCAs)—such as crushed ceramic bricks (CCBs)—offer several benefits, including reducing [...] Read more.
The use of different components, such as alternative aggregates, represents an innovation in construction. According to various studies, these components improve certain properties of the elements that incorporate them. Specifically, recycled construction aggregates (RCAs)—such as crushed ceramic bricks (CCBs)—offer several benefits, including reducing landfill waste, enhancing the mechanical properties of the elements that integrate them, and ensuring availability. This research focuses on utilizing these waste materials and determining their feasibility and compatibility (in the short term) for manufacturing traditional earth blocks (EBs). This is achieved by studying the physical and mechanical properties of CCBs in matrices for EB construction, adhering to performance standards, emphasizing the advantages these aggregates provide for mechanical properties in sustainable construction and applying them in the context of traditional construction. Correlations were established through a statistical study of experimental data, graphically indicating the relationship between the different properties of CCBs, the mix design process, and the structural behavior of the resulting EB. Based on the key variable of the CCB replacement percentage, properties such as the elastic module by ultrasound, porosity, and expansion by hygroscopicity were analyzed, alongside mechanical properties like compressive and flexural strength. The results show that EBs with CCBs increases porosity by up to 21.59%. These blocks exhibit dimensional shrinkage of up to 14.5%, correlating with the increase in the CCB content. This aggregate replacement leads to a reduction in compressive strength (up to −23%) and flexural strength (up to −17.43%); however, all CCB content levels studied met the requirements of the applied standards. It is concluded that CCBs satisfactorily modifies the properties of the EBs and is suitable for use in construction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Eco-Friendly Building Materials: Recycled Waste and Sustainable Design)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Aggregates used to produce EBs: (<b>a</b>) E, (<b>b</b>) CCBs.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Granulometry of the E and CCBs used, and of the different dosages studied.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Comparison of the LL and PL of the E and the CCBs under study.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>(<b>a</b>) Concrete mixer and mixing materials; (<b>b</b>) First saturation and hydration rest; (<b>c</b>) Humidity control and correction; (<b>d</b>) Block making in molds; (<b>e</b>) Drying and curing; (<b>f</b>) Face polishing.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>UPV equipment positioned in one of the samples.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>TGA equipment.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>HC content for CCBs replacing E.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Apparent solid density, bulk density, and pore content.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Δ<sub>x</sub> of the study matrices from HC ≈ 0. Regression equations valid only for phase 3.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>RH ratio for the study matrices. The dashed line shows the mean confidence interval (CI) for 95%.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Ratio of f<sub>b</sub> to study matrices, CI = 95%.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>E∂ obtained for the different study matrices.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>TG and dTGA tests for 100E and the different matrices incorporating replacement CCBs.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Example of obtaining samples for OIA study. (<b>a</b>) Sample cutting, (<b>b</b>) epoxy resin embedding, (<b>c</b>) metallographic polishing, (<b>d</b>) surface of the face to be studied, and (<b>e</b>) definition of area of interest.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Identification of the four phases of components present in the microstructure of each area of interest in the different matrices that compose the research. (<b>a</b>) Matrix 100E, (<b>b</b>) Matrix 95E + 5CCB, (<b>c</b>) Matrix 90E + 10CCB, and (<b>d</b>) Matrix 80E + 20CCB.</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>Percentage areas of the different phases identified in the OIA process.</p> Full article ">
14 pages, 11335 KiB  
Article
Indoor Air Pollutant (PM 10, CO2) Reduction Using a Vortex Exhaust Ventilation System in a Mock-Up Room
by Yong-Woo Song, Seong-Eun Kim and Jin-Chul Park
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 144; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010144 - 6 Jan 2025
Viewed by 262
Abstract
In this study, a performance comparison experiment with a vortex exhaust installed at the end of a ventilation device to enhance the effect induced by reducing indoor pollutants was conducted. The experiment was carried out by constructing a mock-up room with a limited [...] Read more.
In this study, a performance comparison experiment with a vortex exhaust installed at the end of a ventilation device to enhance the effect induced by reducing indoor pollutants was conducted. The experiment was carried out by constructing a mock-up room with a limited indoor environment, and performances were compared based on the following two tests. First, to confirm the effect of pollutant reduction, the wind speed was measured based on the distance from each exhaust system to verify the depth and speed at which wind can flow. Pollutants were induced to the vortex exhaust, general exhaust gasses were generated, and their performances were compared. Second, Arizona dust was used to confirm the performance with regard to the removal of pollutants which existed in particulate form (PM 10), and for CO2 gas, a representative gaseous pollutant was used as a reference. Based on the results, it was confirmed that installing a vortex exhaust system can allow for the generation of wind speeds that allow propagation at greater depths (>110 mm) compared to cases in which general exhaust is used; accordingly, exhaust performance can be achieved at increased depths. In addition, the experiment confirmed that vortex exhaust can improve the efficiency of simultaneous removal of PM 10 and CO2 compared with general exhaust. Further, it was shown that installing a vortex exhaust system can remove PM 10 and CO2 farther from the exhaust port in a shorter period than a general exhaust port. In addition, it was inferred that vortex exhaust can be utilized to prevent indoor pollutants and diseases in combination with the latest technology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Conceptual diagram of airflow for vortex exhaust devices using swirlers.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Mock-up composition.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Whole view of the mock-up room.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Wind speed measurement by distance.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Plots of wind speed measurements as a function of distance.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Plots of CO<sub>2</sub> removal according to exhaust type.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Plots of particulate matter (PM) 10 removal as a function of the exhaust type.</p> Full article ">
27 pages, 12396 KiB  
Article
Research on Bearing Capacity Characteristics of Cave Piles
by Lixin Ou, Yufeng Huang, Xu Chen, Yang Xue, Qingfu Li and Biao Guo
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 143; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010143 - 6 Jan 2025
Viewed by 192
Abstract
To investigate the load-bearing characteristics of a pile foundation with multiple piles passing through karst caves and the extent of the caves’ influence, this study takes the Qihe Bridge, a key project of the second section of the Anhe Expressway, as a case [...] Read more.
To investigate the load-bearing characteristics of a pile foundation with multiple piles passing through karst caves and the extent of the caves’ influence, this study takes the Qihe Bridge, a key project of the second section of the Anhe Expressway, as a case study. Field tests on the bearing capacity of the pile foundation, passing through underlying karst caves, were conducted. Piles passing through the caves were selected as test piles, and a finite element analysis of the Qihe Bridge pile foundation structure was performed using Midas GTS NX 2022 software. After verifying the accuracy of the software’s calculation results, this study further explored the distribution patterns of factors such as axial force, side friction resistance, settlement, and relative displacement between the pile and soil with respect to the position of the pile. Special attention was given to monitoring locations at the interface between rock and soil layers, as well as within the depth range of the karst caves. The horizontal axial force on the piles was found to increase with the depth of the caves. By analyzing the distribution patterns of axial force, side friction resistance, settlement, and pile–soil relative displacement, the study clarifies the mechanism by which karst caves affect the load-bearing behavior of pile foundations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Schematic diagram of stratigraphic distribution below Pier 1.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Schematic diagram of the relative positions of the cavern.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Schematic diagram of the strain gauge arrangement.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Axial force diagram of Z1-1 pile at various stages of construction.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Finite element model of original strata and cave.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Finite element model of pile group foundation.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Finite element model of pier and pile foundation.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Axial force distribution of pile under self-weight.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Axial force distribution of piles after pier construction.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Comparison of axial forces of Z1-1 piles at various stages of construction.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Axial force distribution of Z1-1 pile during superstructure construction.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Axial force distribution of pile Z1-9 during superstructure construction.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Lateral friction resistance distribution of Z1-1 pile during superstructure construction.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Lateral friction resistance distribution of pile Z1-9 during superstructure construction.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Axial force at 0.3 m for each pile after the cap is built.</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>Axial force at 0.3 m of each pile before closing.</p> Full article ">Figure 17
<p>The axial force at 13.0 m of each pile after the cap is built.</p> Full article ">Figure 18
<p>Axial force at 13.0 m of each pile before closing.</p> Full article ">Figure 19
<p>The axial force at 19.0 m of each pile after the cap is built.</p> Full article ">Figure 20
<p>Axial force at 19.0 m of each pile before closing.</p> Full article ">Figure 21
<p>Settlement of pile top in different periods.</p> Full article ">Figure 22
<p>Subsidence of cave floor in different periods.</p> Full article ">Figure 23
<p>Pile bottom settlement in different periods.</p> Full article ">Figure 24
<p>Relative vertical displacement of pile top in different periods.</p> Full article ">Figure 25
<p>Relative vertical displacement at the depth of cave floor in different periods.</p> Full article ">Figure 26
<p>Relative vertical displacement of pile bottom in different periods.</p> Full article ">
18 pages, 5605 KiB  
Article
Empirical Study of the Relationship of Architectural Form Details to the State of Conservation of Modern Heritage Through Damage Maps
by Matheus Gregorio Kaminski, Paulo Henrique de Sá Aciole and Vanda Alice Garcia Zanoni
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010142 - 6 Jan 2025
Viewed by 358
Abstract
The Sustainable Development Center of the University of Brasilia is one of the modernist buildings that make up the Darcy Ribeiro campus. The architectural project contains several recommendations for the execution of a flat roof waterproofing system, as well as details for rainwater [...] Read more.
The Sustainable Development Center of the University of Brasilia is one of the modernist buildings that make up the Darcy Ribeiro campus. The architectural project contains several recommendations for the execution of a flat roof waterproofing system, as well as details for rainwater runoff and drainage, which reveals the architect’s concern with watertightness. This research seeks to identify the relationship between the pathological manifestations recognized on the roof and the details of the semicircular shape of the building, assessing the state of conservation using damage maps as an auxiliary analysis tool. This study is based on a field survey using aerophotogrammetry with a drone, the application of vector drawing software for graphic representation and discussion of the possible causes, and the agents and mechanisms of degradation at work. The results show the importance of mechanical protection for the good performance of the waterproofing system, as well as the need for correct sizing of expansion joints to absorb and relieve the stresses caused by hygrothermal variations. The incorporated methodology proved to be effective and economical in diagnosing and monitoring pathological manifestations, making it possible to plan maintenance actions that extend the useful life and preserve the intrinsic characteristics of building systems. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the REHABEND 2024 Congress)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>(<b>a</b>) Schematic section of the CDS/UnB: rainwater flow from the roof (highlighting the drip edges, (<b>b</b>). Source: Oscar Niemeyer Planning Center—CEPLAN/UnB. (<b>b</b>) Built detailing of the CDS/UnB drip edges, made of galvanized steel sheets. Source: the authors.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Executive roof waterproofing project and drainage diagram. Source: Oscar Niemeyer Planning Center—CEPLAN/UnB. Source: the authors.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Fixing the photovoltaic panels to the roof: (<b>a</b>) construction detail; (<b>b</b>) dxecution photo. Source: the authors.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Illustration of taking a single aerial photo with the use of a drone for the representation of the roof plan of the CDS/UnB. Source: the authors.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Damage map of the roof of the Sustainable Development Center: highlighting soiling and moisture stains. Source: the authors.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Damage map of the roof of the Sustainable Development Center: highlighting cracks, spallings, and stains from biological attacks. Source: the authors.</p> Full article ">
27 pages, 10001 KiB  
Article
Influential Mechanisms of Roughness on the Cyclic Shearing Behavior of the Interfaces Between Crushed Mudstone and Steel-Cased Rock-Socketed Piles
by Yue Liang, Jianlu Zhang, Bin Xu, Zeyu Liu, Lei Dai and Kui Wang
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010141 - 5 Jan 2025
Viewed by 465
Abstract
In the waterway construction projects of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River, crushed mudstone particles are widely used to backfill the foundations of rock-socketed concrete-filled steel tube (RSCFST) piles, a structure widely adopted in port constructions. In these projects, the steel–mudstone interfaces [...] Read more.
In the waterway construction projects of the upper reaches of the Yangtze River, crushed mudstone particles are widely used to backfill the foundations of rock-socketed concrete-filled steel tube (RSCFST) piles, a structure widely adopted in port constructions. In these projects, the steel–mudstone interfaces experience complex loading conditions, and the surface profile tends to vary within certain ranges during construction and operation. The changes in boundary conditions and material profile significantly impact the bearing performance of these piles when subjected to cyclic loads, such as ship impacts, water level fluctuations, and wave-induced loads. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the shear characteristics of the RSCFST pile–soil interface under cyclic vertical loading, particularly in relation to varying deformation levels in the steel casing’s outer profile. In this study, a series of cyclic direct shear tests are carried out to investigate the influential mechanisms of roughness on the cyclic behavior of RSCFST pile–soil interfaces. The impacts of roughness on shear stress, shear stiffness, damping ratio, normal stress, and particle breakage ratio are discussed separately and can be summarized as follows: (1) During the initial phase of cyclic shearing, increased roughness correlates with higher interfacial shear strength and anisotropy, but also exacerbates interfacial particle breakage. Consequently, the sample undergoes more significant shear contraction, leading to reduced interfacial shear strength and anisotropy in the later stages. (2) The damping ratio of the rough interface exhibits an initial increase followed by a decrease, while the smooth interface demonstrates the exact opposite trend. The variation in damping ratio characteristics corresponds to the transition from soil–structure to soil–soil interfacial shearing. (3) Shear contraction is more pronounced in rough interface samples compared to the smooth interface, indicating that particle breakage has a greater impact on soil shear contraction compared to densification. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Mechanics Analysis of Soil-Structure Interaction)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Schematic diagram of RSCFST piles.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Schematic diagram of the CNS boundary condition.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Mudstone particles used in the tests. (<b>a</b>) Particle size distribution curve of soil specimens; (<b>b</b>) physical graph of mudstone particles.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Surface profile of steel plate.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Large-scale CNS cyclic direct shear apparatus. (<b>a</b>) Schematic diagram; (<b>b</b>) physical graph.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Schematic diagram of the cyclic shear path.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Shear stress versus shear displacement. (<b>a</b>–<b>d</b>) INS = 300 kPa; (<b>e</b>–<b>h</b>) INS = 400 kPa; (<b>i</b>–<b>l</b>) INS = 500 kPa.</p> Full article ">Figure 7 Cont.
<p>Shear stress versus shear displacement. (<b>a</b>–<b>d</b>) INS = 300 kPa; (<b>e</b>–<b>h</b>) INS = 400 kPa; (<b>i</b>–<b>l</b>) INS = 500 kPa.</p> Full article ">Figure 7 Cont.
<p>Shear stress versus shear displacement. (<b>a</b>–<b>d</b>) INS = 300 kPa; (<b>e</b>–<b>h</b>) INS = 400 kPa; (<b>i</b>–<b>l</b>) INS = 500 kPa.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Maximum shear stress versus number of cycles in the positive and negative direction. (<b>a</b>–<b>d</b>) INS = 300 kPa; (<b>e</b>–<b>h</b>) INS = 400 kPa; (<b>i</b>–<b>l</b>) INS = 500 kPa.</p> Full article ">Figure 8 Cont.
<p>Maximum shear stress versus number of cycles in the positive and negative direction. (<b>a</b>–<b>d</b>) INS = 300 kPa; (<b>e</b>–<b>h</b>) INS = 400 kPa; (<b>i</b>–<b>l</b>) INS = 500 kPa.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Schematic diagram of shear stiffness and damping ratio.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Shear stiffness versus number of cycles. (<b>a</b>) INS = 300 kPa; (<b>b</b>) INS = 400 kPa; (<b>c</b>) INS = 500 kPa.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Damping ratio versus number of cycles. (<b>a</b>) INS = 300 kPa; (<b>b</b>) INS = 400 kPa; (<b>c</b>) INS = 500 kPa.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Normal stress versus shear displacement. (<b>a–d</b>) INS = 300 kPa; (<b>e–h</b>) INS = 400 kPa; (<b>i–l</b>) INS = 500 kPa.</p> Full article ">Figure 12 Cont.
<p>Normal stress versus shear displacement. (<b>a–d</b>) INS = 300 kPa; (<b>e–h</b>) INS = 400 kPa; (<b>i–l</b>) INS = 500 kPa.</p> Full article ">Figure 12 Cont.
<p>Normal stress versus shear displacement. (<b>a–d</b>) INS = 300 kPa; (<b>e–h</b>) INS = 400 kPa; (<b>i–l</b>) INS = 500 kPa.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Normal stress versus number of cycles. (<b>a</b>) INS = 300 kPa; (<b>b</b>) INS = 400 kPa; (<b>c</b>) INS = 500 kPa.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Normal stress attenuation ratio versus roughness.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Particle size distribution curve before and after shear test. (<b>a</b>) INS = 300 kPa; (<b>b</b>) INS = 400 kPa; (<b>c</b>) INS = 500 kPa.</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>Particle breakage ratio versus roughness. (<b>a</b>) INS = 300 kPa; (<b>b</b>) INS = 400 kPa; (<b>c</b>) INS = 500 kPa.</p> Full article ">Figure 17
<p>Interface friction angle versus number of cycles.</p> Full article ">Figure 18
<p>Contact type of the shear zone before and after test. (<b>a</b>) Laboratory graph; (<b>b</b>) schematic diagram.</p> Full article ">
19 pages, 11461 KiB  
Article
Optimizing Subsurface Geotechnical Data Integration for Sustainable Building Infrastructure
by Nauman Ijaz, Zain Ijaz, Nianqing Zhou, Zia ur Rehman, Hamdoon Ijaz, Aashan Ijaz and Muhammad Hamza
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010140 - 5 Jan 2025
Viewed by 506
Abstract
Sustainable building construction encounters challenges stemming from escalating expenses and time delays associated with geotechnical assessments. Developing and optimizing geotechnical soil maps (SMs) using existing data across heterogeneous geotechnical formations offer strategic and dynamic solutions. This strategic approach facilitates economical and prompt site [...] Read more.
Sustainable building construction encounters challenges stemming from escalating expenses and time delays associated with geotechnical assessments. Developing and optimizing geotechnical soil maps (SMs) using existing data across heterogeneous geotechnical formations offer strategic and dynamic solutions. This strategic approach facilitates economical and prompt site evaluations, and offers preliminary ground models, enhancing efficient and sustainable building foundation design. In this framework, this paper aimed to develop SMs for the first time in the rapidly growing district of Gujrat using the optimal interpolation technique (OIT). The subsurface conditions were evaluated using the standard penetration test (SPT) N-values and soil classification including seismic wave velocity to account for seismic effects. Among the different geostatistical and geospatial models, the inverse distance weighting (IDW) model based on an optimized spatial analyst approach yielded the minimum error and a higher association with the field data for the understudy region. Overall, the optimized IDW technique yielded root mean square error (RMSE), mean absolute error (MAE), and correlation coefficient (CC) ranges between 0.57 and 0.98. Furthermore, analytical depth-dependent models were developed using SPT-N values to assess the bearing capacity, demonstrating the association of R2 > 0.95. Moreover, the study area was divided into three geotechnical zones based on the average SPT-N values. Comprehensive validation of different strata evaluation based on the optimal IDW for the SPT-N and soil type-based SMs revealed that the RMSE and MAE ranged between 0.36–1.65 and 0.30–0.59, while the CC ranged between 0.93 and 0.98 at multiple depths. The allowable bearing capacity (ABC) for spread footings was determined by evaluating the shear, settlement, and seismic factors. The study offers insights into regional variations in geotechnical formations along with shallow foundation design guidelines for practitioners and researchers working with similar soil conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Spatial details of the district of Gujrat. (<b>a</b>) Location of the district of Gujrat on a map of Pakistan, (<b>b</b>) district of Gujrat map in Punjab province, (<b>c</b>) district of Gujrat map with the administrative controlled tehsils Sarai Alamgir, Kharian, and Gujrat, and (<b>d</b>) average climatic conditions.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>(<b>a</b>) Geological map of the study area, (<b>b</b>) UNESCO/FAO soil classification.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Study area with the locations of the borehole points.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>(<b>a</b>–<b>f</b>) SPT-N histogram at corresponding depths. (<b>i</b>) Comparison of SPT-N distribution at various depths. (<b>j</b>) Descriptive changes of SPT-N with depth.</p> Full article ">Figure 4 Cont.
<p>(<b>a</b>–<b>f</b>) SPT-N histogram at corresponding depths. (<b>i</b>) Comparison of SPT-N distribution at various depths. (<b>j</b>) Descriptive changes of SPT-N with depth.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>CPMs of the various interpolation techniques.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>SPT-N variation up to a 10 m depth at each 1 m interval of the stratum.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Geotechnical properties of soil based on soil type.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Validation of SPT-N and soil type.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Average SPT-N zonation map.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Illustration of the simulation results computed from Plaxis 3D. (<b>a</b>) Isometric view of the model after the application of the load, (<b>b</b>) cross-sectional view of the model, (<b>c</b>) cumulative settlement.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Allowable bearing capacity curves for a spread foundation for zones-I, -II, and -III.</p> Full article ">
20 pages, 15749 KiB  
Article
Study on the Vibration Propagation Law and Stress Distribution Characteristics in Double-Arch Tunnels During Blasting
by Xiaofei Sun, Ying Su, Dunwen Liu, Yu Tang, Pei Zhang, Jishuang Hu and Xianghao Sun
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010139 - 5 Jan 2025
Viewed by 448
Abstract
Highway tunnel construction in mountainous areas of China has been developing rapidly. The influence of drilling and blasting on the existing tunnel structure has become a key factor affecting the safety and stability of tunnel construction. The double-arch tunnel has unique structural characteristics. [...] Read more.
Highway tunnel construction in mountainous areas of China has been developing rapidly. The influence of drilling and blasting on the existing tunnel structure has become a key factor affecting the safety and stability of tunnel construction. The double-arch tunnel has unique structural characteristics. The propagation characteristics of blasting vibrations and the resulting stress responses exhibit a certain level of complexity. There is little research on the influence of single-line blasting excavation of double-arch tunnel on the other line tunnel. This paper analyzes the blasting vibration of a double-arch tunnel by ANSYS/LS-DYNA. The propagation law of blasting vibration velocity and stress distribution law of blasting vibration in different sections of the tunnel is revealed. At the same time, the relationship between the peak particle velocity (PPV) and tensile stress is established, and the threshold vibration velocity is proposed. It provides a scientific basis for tunnel design and construction. The propagation of blasting vibration in the adjacent roadway is affected by the middle pilot tunnel. The peak vibration velocity of different parts decreases with the increase in distance. The monitoring of vibration velocity and stress in section A of the right line of the adjacent tunnel should be strengthened, especially in the tunnel vault, blast-facing side wall, and arch foot. The difference in vibration strength across different tunnel parts provides a basis for optimizing the structure. It helps strengthen the parts susceptible to vibration during the design stage of the multi-arch tunnel, improving the tunnel’s safety and stability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Dynamic Response of Civil Engineering Structures under Seismic Loads)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Borehole layout.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>The Blast-UM blasting vibrometer.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Flowchart.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>The layout of the monitoring points.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>On-site monitoring equipment.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Vibration diagram.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>PPV–frequency.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Simulation result.</p> Full article ">Figure 8 Cont.
<p>Simulation result.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Mesh fineness.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Mesh quality.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Material condition.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Simulated vibration velocity on the blast-facing side.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Simulated vibration velocity on the blast-opposite side.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Effect of smooth blasting.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Blast vibration propagation diagram.</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>Section and selected points distribution diagram.</p> Full article ">Figure 17
<p>The PPV distribution diagram 1.</p> Full article ">Figure 18
<p>The PPV distribution diagram 2.</p> Full article ">Figure 19
<p>Distribution of effective stresses.</p> Full article ">Figure 20
<p>Unit selection and naming.</p> Full article ">Figure 21
<p>Variation law of effective stresses.</p> Full article ">Figure 22
<p>Maximum tensile stress–PPV.</p> Full article ">
22 pages, 5971 KiB  
Article
Life Cycle Carbon Emission Analysis of Buildings with Different Exterior Wall Types Based on BIM Technology
by Yuelong Lyu, Nikita Igorevich Fomin, Shuailong Li, Wentao Hu, Shuoting Xiao, Yue Huang and Chong Liu
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 138; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010138 - 5 Jan 2025
Viewed by 456
Abstract
Building energy conservation and emission reduction are crucial in addressing global climate change. High-performance insulated building envelopes can significantly reduce energy consumption over a building’s lifecycle. However, few studies have systematically analyzed carbon reduction potential through a life cycle assessment (LCA), incorporating case [...] Read more.
Building energy conservation and emission reduction are crucial in addressing global climate change. High-performance insulated building envelopes can significantly reduce energy consumption over a building’s lifecycle. However, few studies have systematically analyzed carbon reduction potential through a life cycle assessment (LCA), incorporating case studies and regional differences. To address this, this study establishes an LCA carbon emission calculation model using Building Information Modeling (BIM) technology and the carbon emission coefficient method. We examined four residential buildings in China’s cold regions and hot summer–cold winter regions, utilizing prefabricated concrete sandwich insulation exterior walls (PCSB) and autoclaved aerated concrete block self-insulating exterior walls (AACB). Results indicate that emissions during the operational phase account for 75% of total lifecycle emissions, with heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems contributing over 50%. Compared to AACB, PCSB reduces lifecycle carbon emissions by 18.54% and by 20.02% in hot summer–cold winter regions. The findings demonstrate that PCSB offers significant energy-saving and emission-reduction benefits during the construction and operation phases. However, it exhibits higher energy consumption during the materialization and demolition phases. This study provides a practical LCA carbon calculation framework that offers insights into reducing lifecycle carbon emissions, thereby guiding sustainable building design. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Energy, Physics, Environment, and Systems)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Average annual temperatures in Wuhan and Qingdao.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Building models and wall sections.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Algorithm logic of the carbon emission factor method based on BIM technology.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Calculation boundary for building life cycle carbon emissions.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Boundary map of carbon source and sink systems.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Average unit carbon emission share of project LCA by stage.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Average unit carbon emissions of different building LCA stages.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Average carbon emissions per unit area of different buildings at the construction stage and LCA share.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Average annual carbon emissions per unit area of different buildings in the operation stage and share of LCA in different regions.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Average annual carbon emissions per unit area of different buildings in the operation stage and LCA share.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Average unit carbon reduction for major recyclable materials in the recycling phase.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Average carbon emissions per unit area in the LCA for buildings located in different regions.</p> Full article ">
23 pages, 9139 KiB  
Article
Experimental and Numerical Simulation Study on the Mechanical Properties of Integrated Sleeve Mortise and Tenon Steel–Wood Composite Joints
by Zhanguang Wang, Weihan Yang, Zhenyu Gao, Jianhua Shao and Dongmei Li
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 137; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010137 - 4 Jan 2025
Viewed by 502
Abstract
In view of the application status and technical challenges of steel–wood composite joints in architecture, this paper proposes an innovative connection technology to solve issues such as susceptibility to pry-out at beam–column joints and low load-bearing capacity and to provide various reinforcement methods [...] Read more.
In view of the application status and technical challenges of steel–wood composite joints in architecture, this paper proposes an innovative connection technology to solve issues such as susceptibility to pry-out at beam–column joints and low load-bearing capacity and to provide various reinforcement methods in order to meet the different structural requirements and economic benefits. By designing and manufacturing four groups of beam–column joint specimens with different reinforcement methods, including no reinforcement, structural adhesive and angle steel reinforcement, 4 mm thick steel sleeve reinforcement, and 6 mm thick steel sleeve reinforcement, monotonic loading tests and finite element simulations were carried out, respectively. This research found that unreinforced specimens and structural adhesive angle steel-reinforced joints exhibited obvious mortise and tenon compression deformation and, moreover, tenon pulling phenomena at load values of approximately 2 kN and 2.6 kN, respectively. However, the joint reinforced by a steel sleeve showed a significant improvement in the tenon pulling phenomenon and demonstrated excellent initial stiffness characteristics. The failure mode of the steel sleeve-reinforced joints is primarily characterized by the propagation of cracks at the edges of the steel plate and the tearing of the wood, but the overall structure remains intact. The initial rotational stiffness of the joints reinforced with angle steel and self-tapping screws, the joints reinforced with 4 mm thick steel sleeves, and the joints reinforced with 6 mm thick steel sleeves are 3.96, 6.99, and 13.62 times that of the pure wooden joints, while the ultimate bending moments are 1.97, 7.11, and 7.39 times, respectively. Using finite element software to simulate four groups of joints to observe their stress changes, the areas with high stress in the joints without sleeve reinforcement are mainly located at the upper and lower ends of the tenon, where the compressive stress at the upper edge of the tenon and the tensile stress at the lower flange are both distributed along the grain direction of the beam. The stress on the column sleeve of the joints reinforced with steel sleeves and bolts is relatively low, while the areas with high strain in the beam sleeve are mainly concentrated on the side with the welded stiffeners and its surroundings; the strain around the bolt holes is also quite noticeable. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Nodes J-1 to J-4. (<b>a</b>) J-1, (<b>b</b>) J-2, and (<b>c</b>) J-3 and J-4.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Design drawings of node J-3 and node J-4. (<b>a</b>) Left view of the steel sleeve of the column, (<b>b</b>) front view of the steel sleeve of the column, (<b>c</b>) left view of the steel sleeve of the beam, and (<b>d</b>) front view of the steel sleeve of the beam. (<b>e</b>) Completed node assembly diagram.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Three-dimensional view of the loading device.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Loading regime.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Layout drawing of measuring points. (<b>a</b>) J-1, (<b>b</b>) J-2, and (<b>c</b>) J-3 and J-4.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Distribution diagram of displacement meters. (<b>a</b>) D1, D2, and D3; (<b>b</b>) D4 and D5.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Deformation diagram of node J-1. (<b>a</b>) Overall view before the test, (<b>b</b>) tenon pulling diagram of the lower flange of the beam, and (<b>c</b>) deformation diagram of the specimen after failure.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Deformation diagram of node J-2. (<b>a</b>) Deformation diagram with an increased degree of tenon pulling and (<b>b</b>) deformation diagram with a tenon pulling amount of 2.5 cm.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Deformation diagram of node J-3. (<b>a</b>) Deformation diagram of the wooden beam under extrusion and tilting, (<b>b</b>) deformation diagram of the edge fracture of the upper flange, and (<b>c</b>) deformation diagram of the extrusion of the lower flange.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Deformation diagram of the J-4 joint. (<b>a</b>) Squeezing deformation diagram of the upper flange, (<b>b</b>) fracture diagram of the upper flange of the wooden beam and the steel plate, and (<b>c</b>) deformation diagram of the wooden beam.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Comparison of the node moment—rotation curves.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Constitutive model of wood in terms of compression and tension along the grain.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Constitutive model of wood in terms of compression across the grain.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Constitutive model of steel.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Schematic diagram of mesh generation.</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>Distributed coupling constraints at the top and end of the column.</p> Full article ">Figure 17
<p>Comparison between finite element analysis results and experimental results. (<b>a</b>) J-1, (<b>b</b>) J-2, (<b>c</b>) J-3, and (<b>d</b>) J-4.</p> Full article ">Figure 18
<p>Stress nephogram of J-1 joint (unit: MPa). (<b>a</b>) Overall failure stress nephogram of the joint, (<b>b</b>) failure stress nephogram of the beam end, and (<b>c</b>) failure stress nephogram of the mortise hole at the column end.</p> Full article ">Figure 19
<p>Stress nephogram of the J-2 joint (unit: MPa). (<b>a</b>) Failure stress nephogram of the column end; (<b>b</b>) failure nephogram of the beam end.</p> Full article ">Figure 20
<p>Stress nephogram of the J-3 joint (unit: MPa). (<b>a</b>) Stress nephogram of overall joint failure, (<b>b</b>) stress nephogram of column end failure, (<b>c</b>) stress nephogram of beam end failure, (<b>d</b>) failure stress nephogram of the sleeve, and (<b>e</b>) failure stress nephogram of the bolt.</p> Full article ">Figure 21
<p>Stress nephogram of the J-4 joint (unit: MPa). (<b>a</b>) Overall failure stress nephogram of the joint, (<b>b</b>) failure stress nephogram of the beam end, and (<b>c</b>) failure stress nephogram of the sleeve.</p> Full article ">
15 pages, 3346 KiB  
Article
Effects of Post-Fire Rehydration on the Mechanical Properties of Slag-Modified Concrete
by Guilherme Palla Teixeira, José Carlos Lopes Ribeiro, Leonardo Gonçalves Pedroti and Gustavo Henrique Nalon
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 136; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010136 - 4 Jan 2025
Viewed by 542
Abstract
Although previous research has examined the mechanical properties of concrete exposed to high temperatures, further investigation is needed into the effects of post-fire curing on the recovery of strength and stiffness of sustainable concretes produced with slag-modified cement. This study conducted an experimental [...] Read more.
Although previous research has examined the mechanical properties of concrete exposed to high temperatures, further investigation is needed into the effects of post-fire curing on the recovery of strength and stiffness of sustainable concretes produced with slag-modified cement. This study conducted an experimental analysis of the residual compressive strength and modulus of elasticity of different types of concrete (20 MPa or 30 MPa) exposed to varying maximum temperature levels (200 °C, 400 °C, 600 °C, 800 °C) and post-fire treatments (with or without rehydration). The concrete specimens were produced using Portland cement CP II-E-32. The rehydration method involved one day of water curing, followed by 14 days of air curing. Statistical analyses revealed potential improvements in the mechanical properties of concretes produced with slag-modified cement due to rehydration processes after exposure to different temperatures levels. The highest values of the relative residual strength factor (Φc) were observed in specimens exposed to a maximum temperature of 600 °C, ranging from 0.862 to 0.905. The highest values of the relative residual elastic modulus factor (ψc) were verified for a maximum temperature of 200 °C, ranging from 0.720 to 0.778. The experimental results were compared with strength and stiffness predictions of design codes. The inclusion of slag in concrete reduced microcracking during the rehydration process due to the reduced amount of calcium hydroxide in the cementitious matrix, increasing the concrete’s relative residual strength and stiffness after post-fire curing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue To Improve Urban Resilience: Cleaner Materials and Technologies towards Sustainable and Green Construction of Buildings)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Appearance of raw materials used in this research: Portland cement CP II-E-32 (<b>a</b>); fine aggregates (<b>b</b>); and coarse aggregates (<b>c</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Summary of the experimental investigation of the present research, comprising specimens with different levels of initial concrete strength (20 MPa and 30 MPa) and maximum exposure temperature (200, 400, 600, and 800 °C) before rehydration (BR) and after rehydration (AR).</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Schematic workflow of this research.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Position (dimensions in centimeters) of thermocouples in TS specimens (<b>a</b>); furnace used in the heating process (<b>b</b>); furnace positions of specimens tested before rehydration (BR) and after rehydration (AR) (<b>c</b>); removal of specimens after slow cooling (<b>d</b>); example of fire-damaged specimen (<b>e</b>); elastic modulus test (<b>f</b>); and compressive strength test (<b>g</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Diagram illustrating the heating–cooling procedures (<b>a</b>) and an example of measurements of Thermocouple 0, 1, and 2 for a target temperature of 600 °C (<b>b</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Comparison between <span class="html-italic">Φ<sub>c</sub></span> values of the concrete specimens of 20 MPa (<b>a</b>) and 30 MPa (<b>b</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Comparison between <span class="html-italic">ψ<sub>c</sub></span> values of concrete specimens of 20 MPa (<b>a</b>) and 30 MPa (<b>b</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Comparison between factors of relative residual compressive strength (<b>a</b>) and elastic modulus (<b>b</b>) obtained in the present study and those prescribed in design codes [<a href="#B47-buildings-15-00136" class="html-bibr">47</a>].</p> Full article ">
25 pages, 7632 KiB  
Review
Solubility Characteristics and Microstructure of Bitumen: A Review
by Han Liu, Haibo Ding, Yanjun Qiu and Hinrich Grothe
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 135; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010135 - 4 Jan 2025
Viewed by 411
Abstract
This is a comprehensive review of the significance of solubility theories, internal stability, and external compatibility within petroleum science and pavement engineering. The historical development and future trends of solubility methods in bitumen are discussed, emphasizing the importance of separating bitumen components based [...] Read more.
This is a comprehensive review of the significance of solubility theories, internal stability, and external compatibility within petroleum science and pavement engineering. The historical development and future trends of solubility methods in bitumen are discussed, emphasizing the importance of separating bitumen components based on solubility to establish a link with chemistry. The paper also highlights the development of solubility theories and various characterization tests for bitumen, as well as the distribution of functional groups of solvents and their parameters. Additionally, it explores the generation of solubility profiles for different types and aging states of bitumen based on solubility data and statistical correlation, and the use of stability diagrams to assess the internal stability of bitumen in different states. The potential for continued research in this field is emphasized to bridge the gap between fundamental chemistry and practical application, leading to improved formulations and enhanced performance of bitumen in various applications, ultimately resulting in more durable and stable pavement structures. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Technologies for Asphalt Pavement Materials and Structures)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Visualization of the bitumen solubility network constructed using full counting.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Theoretical review framework.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Example of the bitumen SAR-AD chromatogram described by polarity scale, adapted from [<a href="#B37-buildings-15-00135" class="html-bibr">37</a>,<a href="#B39-buildings-15-00135" class="html-bibr">39</a>], and copyright (2013) American Chemical Society and MDPI.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Asphaltene model and different solvents on asphaltene precipitation, adapted from [<a href="#B19-buildings-15-00135" class="html-bibr">19</a>,<a href="#B52-buildings-15-00135" class="html-bibr">52</a>], and copyright (2012) American Chemical Society and Taylor &amp; Francis license.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Waxphaltene determinator flow schematic and separation for bitumen sample [<a href="#B53-buildings-15-00135" class="html-bibr">53</a>], copyright (2010) American Chemical Society.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Solubility trend under (δ<sub>r</sub>, δ<sub>v</sub>) coordinates: (<b>a</b>) Group contribution for solubility. (<b>b</b>) Approximate domains of functional group populations. (<b>c</b>) Changes in Solubility Parameters.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Different representations of the Hansen solubility diagram for bitumen: (<b>a</b>) axial diagram (x-y-z plot, where each axis is one of the Hansen solubility parameters); (<b>b</b>) ellipsoid diagram (Hansen fit, axis-aligned ellipsoid, and rotated ellipsoid are compared) [<a href="#B81-buildings-15-00135" class="html-bibr">81</a>], copyright (2004) American Chemical Society.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Two methods of bitumen Hansen solubility testing: (<b>a</b>) Heithaus turbidimetric titrations, reprinted from [<a href="#B97-buildings-15-00135" class="html-bibr">97</a>] with permission from Elsevier; (<b>b</b>) Automated Heithaus titrimetric from WRI.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Calculation of bitumen solubility trends under (δr, δv) coordinates: (<b>a</b>) Bitumen solubility surface. (<b>b</b>) Bitumen solubility volume [<a href="#B98-buildings-15-00135" class="html-bibr">98</a>]; copyright (2007) Taylor &amp; Francis license.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Hansen solubility three-dimensional titration method: (<b>a</b>) HSP of toluene and titrants in the HSP sphere of bitumen. (<b>b</b>) Relative strength of internal stability of bitumen in different states [<a href="#B86-buildings-15-00135" class="html-bibr">86</a>], copyright (2020) Taylor &amp; Francis license.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Stability of binary mixtures of polymer-modified bitumen [<a href="#B115-buildings-15-00135" class="html-bibr">115</a>], copyright (2019) Taylor &amp; Francis license.</p> Full article ">
39 pages, 14159 KiB  
Article
Preventive Conservation of Vernacular Adobe Architecture at Seismic Risk: The Case Study of a World Heritage Historical City
by Neda Haji Sadeghi, Hamed Azizi-Bondarabadi and Mariana Correia
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010134 - 4 Jan 2025
Viewed by 394
Abstract
Heritage is strengthened through proactive actions, known as preventive conservation, that are considered before earthquakes, rather than reactive actions addressed when the emergency situation occurs. Considering that there are several regions around the world with very active seismicity, conservation interventions should guarantee human [...] Read more.
Heritage is strengthened through proactive actions, known as preventive conservation, that are considered before earthquakes, rather than reactive actions addressed when the emergency situation occurs. Considering that there are several regions around the world with very active seismicity, conservation interventions should guarantee human safety and the improvement of the inhabitant’s living conditions while keeping alive the earthen fabric and adobe buildings, thus preserving the lives of the residents but also preserving cultural heritage in the face of earthquakes. The main aim of this paper is to define a comprehensive conservation procedure addressing the preventive conservation of vernacular adobe vaulted houses in Yazd, an Iranian World Heritage property, since 2017. The fundamental phases of this procedure, which this paper’s structure is based on, include introducing the case study and addressing the conservation objectives, the assessment of significance and value, the seismic criteria, the conservation strategies, seismic safety assessment, and decision-making on interventions. The comprehensive preventive conservation procedure presented in this paper was determined by relevant conservation criteria, which contributed to an adequate seismic-retrofitted intervention design. This conservation approach requires evaluation of the seismic performance and the buildings’ safety, through which the decision regarding intervention could be made. Accordingly, this research also dealt with the seismic safety assessment of an adobe building through numerical research work performed using the software HiStrA Ver.2022.1.6. Based on the numerical results, decisions on the need and on the extent of intervention techniques were addressed. In addition, a comparative study was performed on different seismic strengthening techniques available in the literature to define fundamental conservation criteria. In this way, there are more chances for human lives to be preserved if an earthquake occurs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earthen Architecture: Challenges and Opportunities for the 21st Century)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Yazd’s historic fabric: (<b>a</b>) general view; (<b>b</b>) view of residential buildings (source: M. Hoseini).</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Earthquake hazard of Yazd province: (<b>a</b>) different seismic hazard zones of Iran [<a href="#B36-buildings-15-00134" class="html-bibr">36</a>]; (<b>b</b>) earthquake epicenters and main faults around the province [<a href="#B37-buildings-15-00134" class="html-bibr">37</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Tehrani-ha house [<a href="#B47-buildings-15-00134" class="html-bibr">47</a>]: (<b>a</b>) plan view; (<b>b</b>) sectional elevation view; (<b>c</b>) perspective view.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Distinguished adobe houses in Yazd historic fabric: (<b>a</b>) Golshan house (hotel–restaurant); (<b>b</b>) Malek-o-Tojjar house (hotel–restaurant) (source: N. Haji Sadeghi).</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Narrow alleys and organic layout of pathways in the historic fabric of Yazd (source: N. Haji Sadeghi).</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Skyline of the historic fabric of Yazd (source: M. Correia ©ICHTO).</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>New function of adobe houses in the city historic fabric: (<b>a</b>) Art and Architecture Department at Rasoulian house; (<b>b</b>) Rismanian house (Source: N. Haji Sadeghi).</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>The adopted case study structure: (<b>a</b>) position in the Department of Art and Architecture, shown by a blue line; (<b>b</b>) the structure borderline, shown by a red line, and dimensions; (<b>c</b>) the structure exterior view.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>The adopted modeling method: (<b>a</b>) the regular and (<b>b</b>) irregular 3D macroelements for modeling masonry elements; (<b>c</b>) the discretization procedure of curved masonry structures; (<b>d</b>) the zero-thickness element for modeling reinforcing layers [<a href="#B103-buildings-15-00134" class="html-bibr">103</a>] (blue, red, and black springs represent different nonlinear links used in the macroelement).</p> Full article ">Figure 9 Cont.
<p>The adopted modeling method: (<b>a</b>) the regular and (<b>b</b>) irregular 3D macroelements for modeling masonry elements; (<b>c</b>) the discretization procedure of curved masonry structures; (<b>d</b>) the zero-thickness element for modeling reinforcing layers [<a href="#B103-buildings-15-00134" class="html-bibr">103</a>] (blue, red, and black springs represent different nonlinear links used in the macroelement).</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>The computational model of the case study structure in HiStrA Ver.2022.1.6 (red dots represent the considered control nodes in the pushover analyses).</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>The pushover-obtained capacity curves of the unretrofitted structure in different analysis directions.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Damage (red-color contour of plastic strain) to the unretrofitted structure resulting from (<b>a</b>) the positive X-direction and (<b>b</b>) the positive Y-direction pushover analyses.</p> Full article ">Figure 12 Cont.
<p>Damage (red-color contour of plastic strain) to the unretrofitted structure resulting from (<b>a</b>) the positive X-direction and (<b>b</b>) the positive Y-direction pushover analyses.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Real damage to adobe vaults during the 2003 Bam earthquake: (<b>a</b>) the in-plane failure mode and formation of plastic hinges [<a href="#B59-buildings-15-00134" class="html-bibr">59</a>] and (<b>b</b>) the out-of-plane failure mode and overturning of the vault’s back walls [<a href="#B17-buildings-15-00134" class="html-bibr">17</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>The procedure of the N2 method to determine the target displacement of short-period structures (adapted from [<a href="#B128-buildings-15-00134" class="html-bibr">128</a>]) (the red curve represents the actual capacity curve of a SDOF structure).</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>The earthquake demand employed in this study: (<b>a</b>) the seismic hazard curve of the city of Yazd [<a href="#B35-buildings-15-00134" class="html-bibr">35</a>]; (<b>b</b>) the elastic spectrum adopted for the N2 method [<a href="#B33-buildings-15-00134" class="html-bibr">33</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>The case study structure retrofitted with the TRM layers (black surfaces) in the first step of the retrofitting procedure before the final one: (<b>a</b>) the computational model in different views; (<b>b</b>) damage (red-color contour of plastic strain) of the retrofitted structure resulting from the positive X direction (<b>top</b>) and the positive Y-direction (<b>bottom</b>) pushover analyses.</p> Full article ">Figure 17
<p>The case study structure retrofitted with the TRM layers (black surfaces) in the second step of the retrofitting procedure before the final one: (<b>a</b>) the computational model in different views; (<b>b</b>) damage (red-color contour of plastic strain) of the retrofitted structure resulting from the positive X direction (<b>top</b>) and the positive Y-direction (<b>bottom</b>) pushover analyses.</p> Full article ">Figure 18
<p>The computational model of the case study structure retrofitted with the final TRM layers (black surfaces) in different views.</p> Full article ">Figure 18 Cont.
<p>The computational model of the case study structure retrofitted with the final TRM layers (black surfaces) in different views.</p> Full article ">Figure 19
<p>Damage (red-color contour of plastic strain) of the structure retrofitted with the final layout resulting from (<b>a</b>) the positive X-direction and (<b>b</b>) the positive Y-direction pushover analyses.</p> Full article ">Figure 20
<p>Capacity curves of the unretrofitted (dotted line) and retrofitted (continues line) structures obtained from (<b>a</b>) P0; (<b>b</b>) P45; (<b>c</b>) P90; and (<b>d</b>) P135 analyses.</p> Full article ">
32 pages, 4167 KiB  
Article
Ontology-Driven Mixture-of-Domain Documentation: A Backbone Approach Enabling Question Answering for Additive Construction
by Chao Li and Frank Petzold
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010133 - 4 Jan 2025
Viewed by 284
Abstract
Advanced construction techniques, such as additive manufacturing (AM) and modular construction, offer promising solutions to address labor shortages, reduce CO2 emissions, and enhance material efficiency. Despite their potential, the adoption of these innovative methods is hindered by the construction industry’s fragmented expertise. [...] Read more.
Advanced construction techniques, such as additive manufacturing (AM) and modular construction, offer promising solutions to address labor shortages, reduce CO2 emissions, and enhance material efficiency. Despite their potential, the adoption of these innovative methods is hindered by the construction industry’s fragmented expertise. Building Information Modeling (BIM) is frequently suggested to integrate this diverse knowledge, but existing BIM-based approaches lack a robust framework for systematically documenting and retrieving the cross-domain knowledge essential for construction projects. To bridge this gap, this paper presents an ontology-driven methodology for documenting and utilizing expert knowledge, with a focus on AM in construction. Based on a well-founded ontological framework, a set of modular ontologies is formalized for individual domains. Additionally, a prototypical documentation tool is developed to elevate recorded information and BIM models as a knowledge graph. This knowledge graph will interface with advanced large language models (LLMs), enabling effective question answering and knowledge retrieval. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Architectural Design Supported by Information Technology: 2nd Edition)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>MoD and its applications.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Ontology framework enabling MoD.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Modal extension for the IOF Core; prefix–ontology mapping: iof—IOF Core; obo—BFO; modal—proposed MEO ontology.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>CCPO overview with marked CQs; prefix–ontology mapping: iof—IOF Core; obo—BFO; pato—phenotype and trait ontology [<a href="#B96-buildings-15-00133" class="html-bibr">96</a>]; ccpo—proposed concrete composition and properties ontology.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>BOT classes to IOF Core alignment; prefix—ontology mapping: iof—IOF Core; obo—BFO; bot—BOT ontology.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>BOT object properties to IOF Core alignment; prefix—ontology mapping: obo—BFO; ro—RO ontology.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>BDO overview with marked CQs; prefix–ontology mapping: iof—IOF Core; obo—BFO; bdo—proposed BDO ontology.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>CORA-bare and CORAX classes aligned to the IOF Core; prefix–ontology mapping: iof—IOF Core; obo—BFO; cora—CORA-bare ontology; corax—CORAX ontology.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>CORA-bare, CORAX, and RPARTS object properties aligned with the IOF Core; prefix–ontology mapping: iof—IOF Core; obo—BFO; cora—CORA-bare ontology; corax—CORAX ontology; rparts—RPARTS ontology; ro—RO ontology.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>PSO overview with marked CQs; prefix–ontology mapping: cora—CORA-bare ontology; pso—proposed PSO ontology.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Additive construction ontology with marked CQs; prefix–ontology mapping: iof—IOF Core ontology; ccpo—concrete composition and properties ontology; pso: printing system ontology; aco—proposed additive construction ontology.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Narrative model; prefix–ontology mapping: iof—IOF Core; obo—BFO; bot—BOT ontology; bdo—BDO ontology; aco—additive construction ontology; mod—proposed mixture-of-domain documentation ontology.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>RDF graph returned for information of robotic system deployed for experiment using Shotcrete AM method, adapted from <a href="#buildings-15-00133-f0A1" class="html-fig">Figure A1</a>.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>RDF graph returned for necessary sub-processes and their inputs and outputs for one experiment using Shotcrete method, adapted from <a href="#buildings-15-00133-f0A2" class="html-fig">Figure A2</a>.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Workflow of ontology−enabled documentation for BIM models.</p> Full article ">Figure A1
<p>RDF graph for the robotic system deployed by one experiment using the Shotcrete method.</p> Full article ">Figure A2
<p>RDF graph for processes and input and output details of one experiment using the Shotcrete method.</p> Full article ">
24 pages, 5273 KiB  
Article
Design Optimization of an Innovative Instrumental Single-Sided Formwork Supporting System for Retaining Walls Using Physics-Constrained Generative Adversarial Network
by Wei Liu, Lin He, Jikai Liu, Xiangyang Xie, Ning Hao, Cheng Shen and Junyong Zhou
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 132; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010132 - 4 Jan 2025
Viewed by 418
Abstract
Single-sided formwork supporting systems (SFSSs) play a crucial role in the urban construction of retaining walls using cast-in-place concrete. By supporting the formwork from one side, an SFSS can minimize its spatial footprint, enabling its closer placement to boundary lines without compromising structural [...] Read more.
Single-sided formwork supporting systems (SFSSs) play a crucial role in the urban construction of retaining walls using cast-in-place concrete. By supporting the formwork from one side, an SFSS can minimize its spatial footprint, enabling its closer placement to boundary lines without compromising structural integrity. However, existing SFSS designs struggle to achieve a balance between mechanical performance and lightweight construction. To address these limitations, an innovative instrumented SFSS was proposed. It is composed of a panel structure made of a panel, vertical braces, and cross braces and a supporting structure comprising an L-shaped frame, steel tubes, and anchor bolts. These components are conducive to modular manufacturing, lightweight installation, and convenient connections. To facilitate the optimal design of this instrumented SFSS, a physics-constrained generative adversarial network (PC-GAN) approach was proposed. This approach incorporates three objective functions: minimizing material usage, adhering to deformation criteria, and ensuring structural safety. An example application is presented to demonstrate the superiority of the instrumented SFSS and validate the proposed PC-GAN approach. The instrumented SFSS enables individual components to be easily and rapidly prefabricated, assembled, and disassembled, requiring only two workers for installation or removal without the need for additional hoisting equipment. The optimized instrumented SFSS, designed using the PC-GAN approach, achieves comparable deformation performance (from 2.49 mm to 2.48 mm in maxima) and slightly improved component stress levels (from 97 MPa to 115 MPa in maxima) while reducing the total weight by 20.85%, through optimizing panel thickness, the dimensions and spacings of vertical and lateral braces, and the spacings of steel tubes. This optimized design of the instrumented SFSS using PC-GAN shows better performance than the current scheme, combining significant weight reduction with enhanced mechanical efficiency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Emerging Technologies for Structural Design, Inspection, and Maintenance)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Arrangement and construction diagram of the tie rod SFSS.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Typical structural forms of triangular truss SFSS.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Typical design scheme of steel pipe SFSS.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Structural layout and constituent parts of the instrumental SFSS.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Mechanical schematic diagram of the overall structure of the instrumental SFSS.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Mechanical schematic diagram of the panel structure.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Mechanical schematic diagram of the triangular supporting structure.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Flowchart of the PC-GAN approach for design optimization of the SFSS.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Photos of SFSS assembly construction and completion of concrete wall construction.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Deformation of the instrumental SFSS of the initial design.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Stress distribution of the instrumental SFSS of the initial design. (<b>a</b>) The laminated timber panel structure; (<b>b</b>) the steel supporting structure.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Iterations of the PC-GAN approach and distributions of generated parameter values.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Deformation of the instrumental SFSS after optimized design.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Stress distribution of the instrumental SFSS after optimized design. (<b>a</b>) The laminated timber panel structure; (<b>b</b>) the steel supporting structure.</p> Full article ">
25 pages, 7882 KiB  
Article
The Anchorage Performance and Mechanism of Prefabricated Concrete Shear Walls with Closed-Loop Rebar
by Yufen Gao, Zheng Yang, Lu Chen, Shengzhao Cheng and Zhongshan Zhang
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 131; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010131 - 4 Jan 2025
Viewed by 318
Abstract
To thoroughly investigate the anchorage performance of a novel prefabricated concrete shear wall system assembled by anchoring closed-loop rebar, rebar pull-out tests were conducted. The effects of different rebar distribution forms, closed-loop rebar anchoring heights, and dowel rebar diameters on anchorage performance were [...] Read more.
To thoroughly investigate the anchorage performance of a novel prefabricated concrete shear wall system assembled by anchoring closed-loop rebar, rebar pull-out tests were conducted. The effects of different rebar distribution forms, closed-loop rebar anchoring heights, and dowel rebar diameters on anchorage performance were considered. Strain measurements at key points were taken, and the failure modes and peak loads of shear walls with various closed-loop rebar assemblies were obtained. The results indicated that the rebars in all specimens fractured, with peak loads ranging from 90 kN to 100 kN, satisfying the anchorage requirements of the rebar. This demonstrates that even when the anchorage length of the rebar is less than specified, the method of assembling by anchoring closed-loop rebar can still provide good anchorage performance. Moreover, steel bars and concrete have different damage and failure characteristics under different load levels. This research also indicates that specimens with uniformly distributed closed-loop rebar exhibit superior anchorage performance compared to those with adjacent distribution. Furthermore, increasing the overlapping height of the closed-loop rebar contributed to enhancing the safety margin of the anchorage, while the diameter of the dowel rebar (similar to stirrups) had a relatively minor effect on the anchorage performance. These findings provide a scientific basis for the design and construction of prefabricated concrete shear walls with closed-loop rebar. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Structural Techniques for Prefabricated Modular Buildings)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Schematic diagram of the coupled hoop connection method.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Schematic diagram of the specimen.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Diagrams of different rebar binding configurations.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Schematic diagram of the test loading system.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Arrangement of strain gauges.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Finite element meshes, constraints, and loads.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Concrete damage area and rebar fracture morphology of different specimens.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Total load and point strain curve for Specimen I-1.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Total load and point strain curve for monitoring points 3 and 4 of Specimens II-1 and III-1.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Total load and point strain curve for points 3 and 4 of different specimens.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Experimental value and simulated value of key points.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Rebar stress under different thresholds.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Stress and damage of concrete.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Stress of rebar at different depths under different conditions.</p> Full article ">Figure 14 Cont.
<p>Stress of rebar at different depths under different conditions.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Simulation of the pull-out of a single U-shaped rebar shear wall.</p> Full article ">
25 pages, 1490 KiB  
Review
Integrating Building Information Modelling into Construction Project Management Education in Australia: A Comprehensive Review of Industry Needs and Academic Gaps
by Xavier Papuraj, Nima Izadyar and Zora Vrcelj
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 130; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010130 - 3 Jan 2025
Viewed by 584
Abstract
Integrating Building Information Modelling (BIM) into Construction Project Management (CPM) curricula is crucial for preparing industry-ready professionals with the digital competencies needed in the rapidly evolving, technology-driven construction sector. This systematic literature review evaluated gaps and challenges in BIM education within CPM courses, [...] Read more.
Integrating Building Information Modelling (BIM) into Construction Project Management (CPM) curricula is crucial for preparing industry-ready professionals with the digital competencies needed in the rapidly evolving, technology-driven construction sector. This systematic literature review evaluated gaps and challenges in BIM education within CPM courses, including limited faculty training, inconsistent curricula, and insufficient hands-on, interdisciplinary collaboration opportunities for students. These deficiencies hinder consistent BIM competency development among graduates, resulting in disparities in skill levels and readiness for industry demands. This study identified essential digital management skills and BIM competencies required for effective industry practice by examining global academic research. The findings revealed that despite advancing BIM adoption, significant gaps persist in its teaching, particularly the lack of collaborative education within project management disciplines, and need for enhanced collaboration between academia and the industry to bridge the skills gap. Industry professionals and academics emphasise the deficit in BIM knowledge among project management graduates and advocate for a cohesive educational framework aligning with industry requirements, emphasising hands-on experience and interdisciplinary collaboration. This study highlighted significant gaps and opportunities for integrating Building Information Modelling (BIM) into Construction Project Management (CPM) education, with the aim to enhance the competency and employability of future construction project managers. By proposing a phased approach and a BIM educational framework tailored to the Australian context, this review recommended the integration of BIM, supported by other emerging technologies, to better align educational outcomes with industry demands. The recommendations focus on curriculum design and implementation strategies to bridge the identified gaps. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Construction Management, and Computers & Digitization)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Steps of this Review.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>PRISMA flow diagram of search and study selection.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Publications per year since 2010.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>(<b>a</b>) Global distribution of publications; (<b>b</b>) global distribution of publications.</p> Full article ">
21 pages, 6143 KiB  
Article
Investigating the Construction Procedure and Safety Oversight of the Mechanical Shaft Technique: Insights Gained from the Guangzhou Intercity Railway Project
by Jianwang Li, Wenrui Qi, Xinlong Li, Gaoyu Liu, Jian Chen and Huawei Tong
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 129; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010129 - 3 Jan 2025
Viewed by 371
Abstract
Currently, subway and underground engineering projects are vital for alleviating urban congestion and enhancing citizens’ quality of life. Among these, excavation engineering for foundation pits involves the most accidents in geotechnical engineering. Although there are various construction methods, most face issues such as [...] Read more.
Currently, subway and underground engineering projects are vital for alleviating urban congestion and enhancing citizens’ quality of life. Among these, excavation engineering for foundation pits involves the most accidents in geotechnical engineering. Although there are various construction methods, most face issues such as a large footprint, high investments, resource waste, and low mechanization. Addressing these, this paper focuses on a subway foundation pit project in Guangzhou using mechanical shaft sinking technology. Using intelligent cloud monitoring, we analyzed the stress–strain patterns of the cutting edge and segments. The results showed significant improvements in construction efficiency, cost reduction, safety, and resource conservation. Based on this work, this paper makes the following conclusions: (1) The mechanical shaft sinking method offers advantages such as small footprint, high mechanization, minimal environmental impact, and cost-effectiveness. The achievements include a 22.22% reduction in construction time, a 20.27% decrease in investment, and lower worker risk. (2) Monitoring confirmed that all cutting edge and segment values remained safe, demonstrating the method’s feasibility and rationality. (3) Analyzing shaft monitoring data and field uncertainties, this study proposes recommendations for future work, including precise segment lowering control and introducing high-precision total stations and GPS technology to mitigate tunneling and assembly inaccuracies. The research validates the mechanical shaft sinking scheme’s scientific and logical nature, ensuring safety and contributing to technological advancements. It offers practical insights, implementable suggestions, and significant economic benefits, reducing project investment by RMB 41,235,600. This sets a benchmark for subway excavation projects in South China and beyond, providing reliable reference values. Furthermore, the findings provide valuable insights and guidance for industry peers, enhancing overall efficiency and sustainable development in subway construction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Building Foundation Engineering and Underground Structures)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Subway pit collapse with extensive damage: (<b>a</b>) Singapore MRT foundation pit; (<b>b</b>) Nanning Greenland deep foundation pit.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Construction area surrounding environment and formation conditions. (<b>a</b>) Surrounding environment of construction site; (<b>b</b>) geological condition.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>The mechanical shaft excavation system: (<b>a</b>) overall schematic diagram of mechanical shaft machine; (<b>b</b>) the shaft excavation machine; (<b>c</b>) settlement System; (<b>d</b>) separation plant.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Mechanical shaft sinking method construction process: (<b>a</b>) cutting edge positioning; (<b>b</b>) 0-ring segment splicing; (<b>c</b>) shaft excavation machine installation; (<b>d</b>) underwater grouting.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Construction process and method.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Shaft sinking method and schematic diagram of the sinking system.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>JTM-MCU automated data.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Crack gauge monitoring.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Segment and cutting edge stress and strain monitoring: (<b>a</b>) segment sensor layout; (<b>b</b>) cutting edge sensor layout.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Cutting edge force monitoring: (<b>a</b>) cutting edge slope contact soil pressure; (<b>b</b>) cutting edge steel plate strain.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Contact soil pressure of fifth ring segment: (<b>a</b>) ring joint contact soil pressure; (<b>b</b>) longitudinal joint contact soil pressure.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Concrete strain of fifth ring segment: (<b>a</b>) segment longitudinal concrete strain; (<b>b</b>) segment circumferential concrete strain.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>The opening width of fifth ring segment: (<b>a</b>) the opening width of segment ring joint; (<b>b</b>) the opening width of segment longitudinal joint.</p> Full article ">
19 pages, 11406 KiB  
Article
A Novel Full-Tension Crossed Cable-Truss Structure: Feasible Design and Forming Method
by Chenhao Xu, Zhanyuan Gao, Suduo Xue, Renyuan Zhang and Xuanzhi Li
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010128 - 3 Jan 2025
Viewed by 250
Abstract
In order to avoid the instability of compression support in annular space cable truss structures, a novel full-tension crossed cable-truss structure (FCCTS) is studied. Firstly, according to the geometric shape of cables, the distribution law of cable force in the pre-stressed state is [...] Read more.
In order to avoid the instability of compression support in annular space cable truss structures, a novel full-tension crossed cable-truss structure (FCCTS) is studied. Firstly, according to the geometric shape of cables, the distribution law of cable force in the pre-stressed state is deduced and analyzed by theory. According to the characteristics of the cable force of vertical cables being much smaller than that of upper and lower chord cables, a forming method of tensioning vertical cables, namely, the vertical cable-shortening method (VSM), is proposed. Corresponding node connection devices are also designed and tested. Subsequently, the VSM process for establishing tension is elaborated in detail, and its feasibility is numerically simulated and validated. The results clearly show that VSM can effectively establish the pre-stress state in FCCTS. The VSM has the advantage of low applied tension, making it easier to form structural tension. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>The wheel-spoke structure. (<b>a</b>) Single outer ring-double inner ring; (<b>b</b>) single inner ring-double outer ring.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>The ACCTS.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>The FCCTS.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Diagram of cable-truss evolution.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Node force model. (<b>a</b>) The ACCTS; (<b>b</b>) The FCCTS.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Force distribution in different configurations. (<b>a</b>) T<sub>1</sub> = 100 kN; (<b>b</b>) T<sub>3</sub> = 100 kN.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Calculation model of the cable truss.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Detailed construction of connection joints.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Installed lower connection joint.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Installed upper connection joint.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Tensioning and anchorage of vertical cable. (<b>a</b>) Before tensioning; (<b>b</b>) after tensioning.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Flow chart of the construction formation process for an FCCTS. (<b>a</b>) Install upper cables; (<b>b</b>) Lift upper ring beam; (<b>c</b>) Install lower joints; (<b>d</b>) Lift structure to design location.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>The bolt-drawing instrument.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Model diagram.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>The cable force at each tension stage. (<b>a</b>) Upper cables; (<b>b</b>) lower cables; (<b>c</b>) vertical cables.</p> Full article ">Figure 15 Cont.
<p>The cable force at each tension stage. (<b>a</b>) Upper cables; (<b>b</b>) lower cables; (<b>c</b>) vertical cables.</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>Cable force increment at each tension stage. (<b>a</b>) Upper cables; (<b>b</b>) lower cables; (<b>c</b>) vertical cables.</p> Full article ">Figure 16 Cont.
<p>Cable force increment at each tension stage. (<b>a</b>) Upper cables; (<b>b</b>) lower cables; (<b>c</b>) vertical cables.</p> Full article ">Figure 17
<p>Cable force of the structure during the tensioning process (kN).</p> Full article ">Figure 18
<p>Node displacement during the tensioning process.</p> Full article ">Figure 19
<p>Vertical displacement of the structure during the tensioning process.</p> Full article ">
17 pages, 6133 KiB  
Article
A Campus Landscape Visual Evaluation Method Integrating PixScape and UAV Remote Sensing Images
by Lili Song and Moyu Wu
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010127 - 3 Jan 2025
Viewed by 301
Abstract
Landscape, as an important component of environmental quality, is increasingly valued by scholars for its visual dimension. Unlike evaluating landscape visual quality through on-site observation or using digital photos, the landscape visualization modeling method supported by unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) aerial photography, geographic [...] Read more.
Landscape, as an important component of environmental quality, is increasingly valued by scholars for its visual dimension. Unlike evaluating landscape visual quality through on-site observation or using digital photos, the landscape visualization modeling method supported by unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) aerial photography, geographic information System (GIS), and PixScape has the advantage of systematically scanning landscape geographic space. The data acquisition is convenient and fast, and the resolution is high, providing a new attempt for landscape visualization analysis. In order to explore the application of visibility modeling based on high-resolution UAV remote sensing images in landscape visual evaluation, this study takes campus landscape as an example and uses high-resolution campus UAV remote sensing images as the basic data source to analyze the differences between the planar method and tangent method provided by PixScape 1.2 software in visual modeling. Six evaluation factors, including Naturalness (N), Normalized Shannon Diversity Index (S), Contagion (CONTAG), Shannon depth (SD), Depth Line (DL), and Skyline (SL), are selected to evaluate the landscape vision of four viewpoints in the campus based on analytic hierarchy process (AHP) method. The results indicate that the tangent method considers the visual impact of the vertical amplitude and the distance between landscape and viewpoints, which is more in line with the real visual perception of the human eyes. In addition, objective quantitative evaluation metrics based on visibility modeling can reflect the visual differences of landscapes from different viewpoints and have good applicability in campus landscape visual evaluation. It is expected that this research can enrich the method system of landscape visual evaluation and provide technical references for it. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Location of study area: (<b>a</b>) Location of Henan Province in China; (<b>b</b>) Location of Xinxiang City in Henan Province; (<b>c</b>) Location of Henan Institute of Science and Technology.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Landscape classification and relative height of the study area: (<b>a</b>) Landscape-type map; (<b>b</b>) Vegetation-covered map; (<b>c</b>) Relative height map.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Schematic diagram of the principle of visibility analysis based on plane method and tangent method [<a href="#B10-buildings-15-00127" class="html-bibr">10</a>]: (<b>a</b>) each column represents a pixel in the raster image, different colors represent different landscape types, and the height represents the ground height in DEM and the ground landscape height in DSM; (<b>b</b>) in the planimetric analysis, the color block landscape in the middle (brown) is the dominant landscape element using the criterion of ground surface area; (<b>c</b>) in the tangential analysis, the color block landscape in the bottom (yellow) is the dominant landscape element using the criterion of angular surface area; (<b>d</b>) the angular surface area of viewable landscape closest to the observer ASA<sub>ABCD</sub> = ∠AOD × ∠COD.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Frame diagram of data processing process and result example.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Position of observation point.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Visual analysis of the output results of four observation points based on the plane method.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Proportion diagram of vegetation and water area in the visual landscape of four observation points.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Visualized landscape tangents figures of four observation points.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Proportion of landscape-type area in four viewpoints based on plane method.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Proportion of landscape-type area in four viewpoints based on tangent method.</p> Full article ">
15 pages, 14665 KiB  
Article
Finite Element Model Updating Technique for Super High-Rise Building Based on Response Surface Method
by Yancan Wang, Dongfu Zhao and Hao Li
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010126 - 3 Jan 2025
Viewed by 338
Abstract
To establish a finite element model that accurately represents the dynamic characteristics of actual super high-rise building and improve the accuracy of the finite element simulation results, a finite element model updating method for super high-rise building is proposed based on the response [...] Read more.
To establish a finite element model that accurately represents the dynamic characteristics of actual super high-rise building and improve the accuracy of the finite element simulation results, a finite element model updating method for super high-rise building is proposed based on the response surface method (RSM). Taking a 120 m super high-rise building as the research object, a refined initial finite element model is firstly established, and the elastic modulus and density of the main concrete and steel components in the model are set as the parameters to be updated. A significance analysis was conducted on 16 parameters to be updated including E1–E8, D1–D8, and the first 10 natural frequencies of the structure, and 6 updating parameters are ultimately selected. A sample set of updating parameters was generated using central composite design (CCD) and then applied to the finite element model for calculation. The response surface equations for the first ten natural frequencies were obtained through quadratic polynomial fitting, and the optimal solution of the objective function was determined using a genetic algorithm. The results of the engineering case study indicate that the errors in the first ten natural frequencies of the updated finite element model are all within 5%. The updated model accurately reflects the current situation of the super high-rise building and provides a basis for super high-rise building health monitoring, damage detection, and reliability assessment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Methodologies and Technologies in Structural Modelling, Identification and Monitoring of Existing Structures—2nd Edition)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Flow of finite element model updating based on response surface method.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Architectural rendering.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Office building standard floor plan.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Environmental vibration test site diagram.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Structural finite element model diagram.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Significance analysis of parameters and response.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Schematic of first-order translational response surface in Y direction.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Schematic of first-order translational response surface in X direction.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Schematic of first-order torsional response surface in XY direction.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Schematic of second-order translational response surface in Y direction.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Convergence curve of the objective function.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Comparison of frequencies and relative errors before and after updating.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Comparison of the updated model with the test vibration modes.</p> Full article ">Figure 13 Cont.
<p>Comparison of the updated model with the test vibration modes.</p> Full article ">
19 pages, 4499 KiB  
Article
A Framework for Informing Complete Street Planning: A Case Study in Brazil
by Ashiley Adelaide Rosa and Fernando Lima
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 125; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010125 - 3 Jan 2025
Viewed by 339
Abstract
The concept of Complete Streets prompts a re-evaluation of the road design paradigm of the past century, which prioritized vehicles over human-centered use. It seeks to integrate land-use planning with urban mobility, focusing on a safer, more accessible allocation of street space that [...] Read more.
The concept of Complete Streets prompts a re-evaluation of the road design paradigm of the past century, which prioritized vehicles over human-centered use. It seeks to integrate land-use planning with urban mobility, focusing on a safer, more accessible allocation of street space that supports diverse transportation modes, stimulates local economic development, encourages active mobility, and reinforces place identity while recognizing each street’s unique purpose. However, Complete Streets have competing planning demands that vary according to their context and capacity to serve different functions and users. Identifying these priorities and street types is crucial for managing the trade-offs between functions according to each street’s role. This article presents a framework for assessing a street’s purpose and guiding interventions, focusing on the first two of the three key functions of Complete Streets: place, movement, and environment. The proposed framework is flexible and objective while allowing qualitative and subjective insights to be integrated. The preliminary results align with the empirical analysis of street segments, indicating the framework’s potential for diagnosing and evaluating street completeness. The developed experiment helped identify the framework’s limitations and its value as a tool for urban planning and design. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Architectural Design, Urban Science, and Real Estate)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Classification of the matrix according to motorized transportation. Source: The Authors.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Micro-axes logic, functions movement and place being measured/addressed. Source: The Authors.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Matrix for completeness classification. Source: The Authors. The matrix is structured around two classification macro-axes, resulting in sixteen possible classifications, and two analysis micro-axes, representing the competing functions of the street under review.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>The CSCI Calculation Process, based on the overlay of (<b>I</b>) the classified profile chart (in blue) and (<b>II</b>) the audited profile chart (in red, dashed) to obtain the (<b>III</b>) CSCI (red infill). Source: The Authors.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Classification matrix of the evaluated street segments. In this stage, the expectations for a street segment are indicated based on its purpose and potential performance from both the movement and function standpoints. For instance, Halfeld St. was classified as a high priority in non-motorized and very low priority in motorized, meaning that its place micro-axis is high and its movement micro-axis is low, as depicted by the blue triangle for this street. Source: The Authors.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Key map indicating the location of the analyzed Street Segments. Source: The Authors, using Google Earth.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Analyzed Street Segments. Source: The Authors.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Matrix depicting the obtained results: the blue lines show the expected results for a specific street segment, and the red dashed lines show the audited (or obtained) results. The red fill, in turn, represents the completeness index, illustrated by the intersection between the expected and audited results. Source: The Authors.</p> Full article ">
16 pages, 2950 KiB  
Article
An Optimization Study on Continuous Steel Box Girder Bridge Components
by Ang Wang, Ruiyuan Gao, Qingfeng Chen, Weizhun Jin, Pengfei Fang and Di Wu
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010124 - 3 Jan 2025
Viewed by 296
Abstract
The steel box girder bridge is a structure composed of mutually vertical stiffening ribs (longitudinal ribs and transverse ribs) that carry the loads of vehicles. Since the external loads are usually complex and variable, the rational design of the bridge components is a [...] Read more.
The steel box girder bridge is a structure composed of mutually vertical stiffening ribs (longitudinal ribs and transverse ribs) that carry the loads of vehicles. Since the external loads are usually complex and variable, the rational design of the bridge components is a topic that deserves more attention. The purpose of this study is to explore the optimal range of some of the component design parameters, expecting to reduce costs while ensuring the stress-carrying capacity. A finite element model (FEM) based on ABAQUS was built and the results were verified by laboratory experiments. The varied thicknesses of the bridge deck, diaphragm, and U-rib were explored based on the validated FEM. The simulation results fit well with the experimental results, which proved that the FEM was quite reliable. The stress analysis results demonstrated an optimal range of 18–20 mm for bridge deck thickness, 14–16 mm for diaphragm thickness, and 8–10 mm for U-rib thickness. The present study holds significant reference value for the design and optimization of multiple steel box girder bridge components, which could further provide a theoretical foundation for related research in this field. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Structures)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>The flowchart of this study.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Dimensions of the model (mm): (<b>a</b>) Schematic diagram of cross-section; (<b>b</b>) Schematic diagram of local dimensions of U-rib and diaphragm.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Schematic diagram of FEM meshing.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Schematic of loading locations: (<b>a</b>) loading condition 1; (<b>b</b>) loading condition 2; and (<b>c</b>) loading condition 3.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Schematic diagram of the experimental model.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Schematics of strain gauge arrangement: (<b>a</b>) strain gauges at bridge decks; (<b>b</b>) strain gauges at diaphragms; and (<b>c</b>) strain gauges at U-ribs.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Simulated stresses of different components: (<b>a</b>) stresses at the bridge deck; (<b>b</b>) stresses at the junction of the diaphragm and bridge deck; (<b>c</b>) stresses at the upper opening of the diaphragm; (<b>d</b>) stresses at the lower opening of the diaphragm; and (<b>e</b>) stresses at the U-rib.</p> Full article ">Figure 7 Cont.
<p>Simulated stresses of different components: (<b>a</b>) stresses at the bridge deck; (<b>b</b>) stresses at the junction of the diaphragm and bridge deck; (<b>c</b>) stresses at the upper opening of the diaphragm; (<b>d</b>) stresses at the lower opening of the diaphragm; and (<b>e</b>) stresses at the U-rib.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Experimentally obtained stresses of different components: (<b>a</b>) stresses at the bridge deck; (<b>b</b>) stresses at the junction of the diaphragm and bridge deck; (<b>c</b>) stresses at the upper opening of the diaphragm; (<b>d</b>) stresses at the lower opening of the diaphragm; and (<b>e</b>) stresses at the U-rib.</p> Full article ">Figure 8 Cont.
<p>Experimentally obtained stresses of different components: (<b>a</b>) stresses at the bridge deck; (<b>b</b>) stresses at the junction of the diaphragm and bridge deck; (<b>c</b>) stresses at the upper opening of the diaphragm; (<b>d</b>) stresses at the lower opening of the diaphragm; and (<b>e</b>) stresses at the U-rib.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Stress curves under different bridge deck thickness conditions: (<b>a</b>) stress curves of bridge deck; (<b>b</b>) stress curves of diaphragm; and (<b>c</b>) stress curves of U-rib.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Stress curves under different diaphragm thickness conditions: (<b>a</b>) stress curves of bridge deck; (<b>b</b>) stress curves of diaphragm; and (<b>c</b>) stress curves of U-rib.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Stress curves under different U-rib thickness conditions: (<b>a</b>) stress curves of bridge deck; (<b>b</b>) stress curves of diaphragm; and (<b>c</b>) stress curves of U-rib.</p> Full article ">
40 pages, 36659 KiB  
Review
A Review of the Application of Hemispherical Photography in Urban Outdoor Thermal Comfort Studies
by Lei Sima, Yisha Liu, Xiaowei Shang, Qi Yuan and Yunming Zhang
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010123 - 2 Jan 2025
Viewed by 369
Abstract
Thermal comfort studies are paramount in enhancing future urban living conditions, and hemispherical photography has emerged as a widely employed field measurement technique in outdoor thermal comfort research. This comprehensive review systematically analyzed 142 outdoor thermal comfort studies conducted over the past decade [...] Read more.
Thermal comfort studies are paramount in enhancing future urban living conditions, and hemispherical photography has emerged as a widely employed field measurement technique in outdoor thermal comfort research. This comprehensive review systematically analyzed 142 outdoor thermal comfort studies conducted over the past decade using hemispherical photography methods, revealing that its primary application lies in objectively describing environmental information and constructing associated indices. In contrast, the number of studies focusing on subjectively assessing environmental factors remains relatively low; however, it is rapidly increasing due to its demonstrated effectiveness and convenience compared to other methodologies within this domain. Overall, despite certain limitations, such as higher labor costs and limited temporal/spatial coverage when describing environmental information, hemispherical photography still retains its advantage of providing accurate data acquisition for outdoor thermal comfort research. In recent years, advancements in mobile measurement tools and techniques have enhanced the richness and versatility of acquired information while leveraging the image specificity inherent to hemispherical photography, which continues to play a pivotal role in subjective assessments related to human perception of outdoor thermal comfort. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Sustainability: Sustainable Housing and Communities)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Flowchart for literature search and screening following the PRISMA statement.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Journal sources of papers.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Percentage of geographical locations.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Percentage of Köppen Climate Classification.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Conducting frequencies of various weather and seasons.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Conducting frequencies of surveying sites.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Percentage of the number of research sites.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Frequencies of the study periods.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Trends in different methods of obtaining one-day data.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Trends in research objectives.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Barrel distortion effect of a rectangular grid [<a href="#B26-buildings-15-00123" class="html-bibr">26</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Hemisphere photography with a fisheye lens [<a href="#B28-buildings-15-00123" class="html-bibr">28</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Dual-wavelength photographs were taken at the same location ((<b>a</b>) is the original picture, and in (<b>b</b>), the leaves were yellow due to the existence of a filter) [<a href="#B31-buildings-15-00123" class="html-bibr">31</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>LAI-2200C Plant canopy analyzer optical sensor with 5 concentric ring detectors schematically shown on the <b>left</b> and hemispherical photography acquired by it on the <b>right</b> [<a href="#B57-buildings-15-00123" class="html-bibr">57</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Schematic of the process of converting a Google Street View panorama from an isometric cylindrical projection to an isometric azimuthal projection [<a href="#B19-buildings-15-00123" class="html-bibr">19</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>Thermal imaging panoramas projected as 6-way hemispherical photography [<a href="#B17-buildings-15-00123" class="html-bibr">17</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 17
<p>The 3DPC was processed to obtain the hemispherical projection using GIS software, and the scale of the canopy projection was calculated for a radius of 5 m [<a href="#B18-buildings-15-00123" class="html-bibr">18</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 18
<p>Brightness distribution within the human field of view [<a href="#B28-buildings-15-00123" class="html-bibr">28</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 19
<p>Spherical densiometer with over-head canopy reflection [<a href="#B99-buildings-15-00123" class="html-bibr">99</a>,<a href="#B100-buildings-15-00123" class="html-bibr">100</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 20
<p>Trends in changes in environmental information.</p> Full article ">Figure 21
<p>Frequency of research on environmental information indices.</p> Full article ">Figure 22
<p>Frequency of use of tools for constructing environmental information indices.</p> Full article ">Figure 23
<p>Trends in non-fisheye lens methods.</p> Full article ">Figure 24
<p>Trends in mobile measurement methods.</p> Full article ">Figure 25
<p>Detailed/non-detailed description of frequency of hemispherical photography.</p> Full article ">Figure 26
<p>The trend of subjective environmental information indices.</p> Full article ">Figure 27
<p>Trends in thermal comfort index.</p> Full article ">Figure 28
<p>Frequency distribution of thermal comfort index. Note: Traditional microclimate index includes air temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, dry-bulb temperature, wet-bulb temperature, surface temperature, ground surface temperature, UVA/UVB, and vapor pressure. Deficit and other traditional microclimate indices.</p> Full article ">
22 pages, 18898 KiB  
Article
Sustainable Building Standards in the Galapagos Islands: Definition, Simulation, and Implementation in Representative Living Labs
by Jorge Torres-Barriuso, Iñigo Lopez-Villamor, Aitziber Egusquiza, Antonio Garrido-Marijuan, Ander Romero-Amorrortu and Ziortza Egiluz
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 122; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010122 - 2 Jan 2025
Viewed by 333
Abstract
The Galapagos Islands are undeniably a highly attractive ecosystem for scientists worldwide. However, the energy efficiency and sustainability aspects of their building stock have not yet been studied in depth, which directly hinders the achievement of sustainability goals for the Archipelago, such as [...] Read more.
The Galapagos Islands are undeniably a highly attractive ecosystem for scientists worldwide. However, the energy efficiency and sustainability aspects of their building stock have not yet been studied in depth, which directly hinders the achievement of sustainability goals for the Archipelago, such as reducing resource consumption, minimizing emissions, and improving overall comfort in buildings. Addressing these issues is critical to preserving the islands’ unique ecosystem, as current construction practices are unsustainable and exacerbate environmental pressures, causing over-consumption of local resources and upsetting the delicate ecological balance that sustains this fragile environment. In line with the National Energy Efficiency Plan promoted by the Government of Ecuador for the Archipelago, this study provides transparent and reliable information and data on the building stock of the islands. This work quantifies the impact of buildings on the use of resources and analyses the potential savings of different strategies for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Various representative typologies are established based on the collection of architectural, construction, and usage information. For each of these typologies, various energy models are developed to establish the baseline and to analyse the demand and comfort of the buildings under different renovation scenarios in order to validate the sustainable construction strategies to be implemented. Moreover, new standards are also defined in order to reduce energy and water consumption and increase indoor air quality and comfort in buildings. In an attempt to generate evidence and facilitate the replication and implementation of sustainable construction standards, three Living Labs (LLs) are created to validate different strategies and technological solutions in different locations, according to the defined standards: a school in Santa Cruz, a hotel in Isabela, and a residential building in San Cristóbal. The findings highlight the effectiveness of specific energy-saving strategies and water conservation measures validated through Living Labs implemented in different locations across the islands. Furthermore, the knowledge generated is transferred through local training of the agents of the construction chain and administration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Selected Papers from the REHABEND 2024 Congress)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Graphical summary of the methodology applied in this study.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>ERCA learning methodology [<a href="#B25-buildings-15-00122" class="html-bibr">25</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Annual comfort according to ASHRAE Standard 55 without the strategies.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Annual comfort according to ASHRAE Standard 55 with applied comfort strategies.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Energy model for calculating the baseline and the rehabilitation model of the residential Living Lab.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Energy model for calculating the baseline and the rehabilitation model of the school Living Lab.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Energy model for calculating the baseline and the rehabilitation model of the hotel Living Lab.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Impact of the ventilated under-roof.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Impact of light-coloured finishes with high reflectance index.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Impact of applying thermal insulation on roof and facades.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Impact of applying solar control films.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Impact of using vegetation as a shading element.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Proposed scheme for improving natural ventilation in the hotel.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Comparison of thermal comfort levels for the hotel LL.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Sectional view of the proposed improvement of natural ventilation in the school and the residential building.</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>(<b>a</b>) Original state, (<b>b</b>) retrofit design, and (<b>c</b>) final result after the retrofit of the residential Living Lab.</p> Full article ">Figure 17
<p>(<b>a</b>) Original state, (<b>b</b>) retrofit design, and (<b>c</b>) final result after the retrofit of the school Living Lab.</p> Full article ">Figure 18
<p>(<b>a</b>) Original state, (<b>b</b>) retrofit design, and (<b>c</b>) final result after the retrofit of the hotel Living Lab.</p> Full article ">
34 pages, 19930 KiB  
Article
Effect of Boundary Conditions and Angles on the Compressive Performance of the Corner Element
by Bing Xu, Lang Wang, Qin Liu, Rui Wang, Bo Xu, Bing Kong and Dan Zhang
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 121; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010121 - 2 Jan 2025
Viewed by 305
Abstract
The corner element is the most basic constitutive element of multi-cellular thin-walled structures; however, scenarios for using relevant theories are limited. To improve this situation, this research investigated the effect of boundary conditions on the compression performance of corner elements with different angles. [...] Read more.
The corner element is the most basic constitutive element of multi-cellular thin-walled structures; however, scenarios for using relevant theories are limited. To improve this situation, this research investigated the effect of boundary conditions on the compression performance of corner elements with different angles. The deformation laws of corner elements were also explored. The approach was based on experiments and the finite element method. The result shows the outwardly extending plates on both sides yield first, the central twisted wire region then destabilizes and exits the working state, and the plate enters the post-buckling phase. A more relaxed boundary and larger angle can make it easier for the corner elements to trigger the symmetric deformation mode. Moreover, a mechanical model for simplified computation is proposed to predict the initial peak crushing force. The research can provide a reference for studying the compression performance of energy-absorbing elements in engineering. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Deformation characteristic diagram of the corner area of the square tube.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Displacement reaction curve of axially compressed square tube [<a href="#B17-buildings-15-00121" class="html-bibr">17</a>].</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Schematic diagram of corner element size parameters.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Basic folding element at <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>θ</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mn>180</mn> <mo>°</mo> </mrow> </semantics></math>.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Corner elements in two different deformation modes.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Generalized folding mechanism.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Schematic design of corner element working condition.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Diagram of standard tensile specimen size.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Randomized speckle patterns generated by Matlab software 2022 Rb.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Schematic diagram of processed standard tensile specimen.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Nominal stress vs. true stress diagram for standard tensile test of stainless steel at room temperature.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Basic folding element with free vertical boundary.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Basic folding element under the curling vertical boundary.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Displacement–counterforce curves of corner elements under axial compression with free boundary.</p> Full article ">Figure 15
<p>Damage patterns of the specimens at the final moment of loading for the corner element with free boundary.</p> Full article ">Figure 16
<p>Damage patterns of the specimens at the final moment of loading for the corner element with bead boundary.</p> Full article ">Figure 17
<p>Damage patterns of specimens at the final moment of loading for corner elements with curling boundaries.</p> Full article ">Figure 18
<p>Finite element models of corner elements with two vertical boundary conditions.</p> Full article ">Figure 19
<p>Stress–strain diagram of ideal linear curling elastic–plastic mechanics model.</p> Full article ">Figure 20
<p>Finite element results for different mesh sizes.</p> Full article ">Figure 21
<p>Schematic definition of the normal positive direction of the shell structure.</p> Full article ">Figure 22
<p>Modeling and meshing diagram of the corner element.</p> Full article ">Figure 23
<p>Schematic diagram of loading amplitude curve.</p> Full article ">Figure 24
<p>Buckling mode for trigger.</p> Full article ">Figure 25
<p>Deformation patterns of simulated specimens with free vertical boundaries at the final moment of loading.</p> Full article ">Figure 26
<p>Deformation patterns of simulated specimens with curling vertical boundaries at the final moment of loading.</p> Full article ">Figure 27
<p>Comparison of finite element model and experimental model axial displacement and strain cloud map.</p> Full article ">Figure 27 Cont.
<p>Comparison of finite element model and experimental model axial displacement and strain cloud map.</p> Full article ">Figure 28
<p>Comparison of displacement counterforce curves and deformation process between the experimental model (black) and the finite element model (m = 1) (red) under axial pressure.</p> Full article ">Figure 29
<p>Comparison of displacement counterforce curves and deformation process between the experimental model and the finite element model (m = 2) (red) under axial pressure.</p> Full article ">Figure 30
<p>Stress cloud maps of corner elements with free boundary conditions during compression at different operating conditions (the left figure is the first principal stress, and the right figure is the equivalent plastic strain, the same as below).</p> Full article ">Figure 30 Cont.
<p>Stress cloud maps of corner elements with free boundary conditions during compression at different operating conditions (the left figure is the first principal stress, and the right figure is the equivalent plastic strain, the same as below).</p> Full article ">Figure 30 Cont.
<p>Stress cloud maps of corner elements with free boundary conditions during compression at different operating conditions (the left figure is the first principal stress, and the right figure is the equivalent plastic strain, the same as below).</p> Full article ">Figure 31
<p>Stress cloud maps of corner elements with curling boundary conditions during compression at different operating conditions.</p> Full article ">Figure 31 Cont.
<p>Stress cloud maps of corner elements with curling boundary conditions during compression at different operating conditions.</p> Full article ">Figure 31 Cont.
<p>Stress cloud maps of corner elements with curling boundary conditions during compression at different operating conditions.</p> Full article ">Figure 32
<p>Comparison of finite element results for mean crushing force of different specimens.</p> Full article ">Figure 33
<p>Comparison of theoretical (lines) and experimental (scatter) values of the initial compression force results of the curling free boundary at different angles <span class="html-italic">θ</span> according to the Standard for Design of Steel Structures.</p> Full article ">Figure 34
<p>Comparison of theoretical (lines) and experimental (scatter) values of the initial compression force results of the curling vertical boundary at different angles <span class="html-italic">θ</span> according to the Standard for Design of Steel Structures.</p> Full article ">Figure 35
<p>Schematic diagram of the mechanical model of the corner element.</p> Full article ">Figure 36
<p>Comparison of the theoretical (lines) and experimental (scatter) values of the extreme value of the reaction force at the free vertical boundary at different angles <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>θ</mi> </mrow> </semantics></math> according to the present mechanical model.</p> Full article ">Figure 37
<p>Calculated (scatter) results of the angular enhancement coefficient <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <mi>η</mi> <mfenced separators="|"> <mrow> <mi>θ</mi> </mrow> </mfenced> </mrow> </semantics></math> and its fitted curves under the free vertical boundary.</p> Full article ">
19 pages, 12133 KiB  
Article
Deterioration of Concrete Under Simulated Acid Rain Conditions: Microstructure, Appearance, and Compressive Properties
by Lingxu Li, Norazura Muhamad Bunnori and Chee Ghuan Tan
Buildings 2025, 15(1), 120; https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15010120 - 2 Jan 2025
Viewed by 280
Abstract
The effects of acid rain corrosion on the properties of concrete are broadly understood. This study investigated the impact of varying corrosion conditions on the microstructure and mechanical properties of concrete, which has not received sufficient attention using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy [...] Read more.
The effects of acid rain corrosion on the properties of concrete are broadly understood. This study investigated the impact of varying corrosion conditions on the microstructure and mechanical properties of concrete, which has not received sufficient attention using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), and compressive tests. In the laboratory, simulated acid rain solutions with pH levels of 0.0, 1.0, and 2.0 were prepared using sulfuric acid solution. A total of 13 sets of 39 concrete cubes each were immersed in these acid solutions for durations of 7, 14, 21, and 28 days. The findings clearly indicate that simulated acid rain corrosion significantly affects both the microstructure and mechanical properties of concrete. Acid alters the material composition of concrete and simultaneously increases the formation of pores within it. This not only changes the number, area, and perimeter of the pores but also affects their shape parameters, including circularity and fractal box-counting dimension. These pores typically measure less than 0.4 μm and include micro- and medium-sized pores, contributing to the more porous and structurally loose concrete matrix. As the duration of acid exposure and the concentration of the acid solution increase, there is noticeable decrease in compressive strength, accompanied by changes in the concrete structure. The rate of strength reduction varies from 6.05% to 37.90%. The corrosion process of acid solution on concrete is characterized by a gradual advancement of the corrosion front. However, this progression slows over time because as the corrosion depth increases, the penetration of the acid solution into deeper layers becomes limited, thereby reducing the rate of strength deterioration. The deterioration mechanism of concrete can be attributed to dissolution corrosion caused by H+ ions and expansion corrosion due to the coupling of SO42− ions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Building Materials, and Repair & Renovation)
►▼ Show Figures

Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>The preparation process of the concrete corrosion test cubes: the concrete cubes are completed after making and curing (<b>a</b>); corrosion-resistant plastic tubs were soaked in solutions of varying concentrations (<b>b</b>) and removed after a specified period of time (<b>c</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>The concrete specimens tested after undergoing corrosion treatment: (<b>a</b>) All 39 specimens to be tested. (<b>a</b>–<b>g</b>): Partially corroded specimens just completed for visual inspection.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>The microstructure of concrete exposed to pure water (<b>a</b>,<b>b</b>) and corroded by acid solution (<b>c</b>–<b>f</b>) is depicted as follows: (<b>a</b>,<b>b</b>): Ca(OH)<sub>2</sub> crystals and C-S-H gel are clearly visible on the surface. (<b>c</b>,<b>d</b>): Severe cavitation consequences and a flocculent structure of pH028d. (<b>e</b>,<b>f</b>): Microstructure of pH014d observed along with the element percentage from two sections obtained by EDS. These observations and analyses provide insights into how simulated acid rain affects the composition and microstructure of concrete under different exposure conditions.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Microstructure and elemental composition of the interface analyzed by EDS between corroded and uncorroded regions of the specimen (pH014d). (<b>a</b>,<b>c</b>) show the microstructure of the interface, while (<b>b</b>,<b>d</b>) illustrate the corresponding elemental percentages in the analyzed regions.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>The corroded (<b>a</b>) and uncorroded (<b>b</b>) areas are processed into binarized images, respectively (<b>c</b>,<b>d</b>). (The specimen of pH014d is used for analysis here because, among all SEM observations, it captures the corrosion front under microscopic conditions the best). The white area represents pores formed by corrosion and pores between different particles, and the black represents the matrix.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Pore statistics results based on SEM. The difference between the corroded and uncorroded areas was compared from the parameters of the count (<b>a</b>), area (<b>b</b>), perimeter of different pore sizes (<b>c</b>), and roundness (<b>d</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Using the non-corroded region as an example, square grids of varying sizes (side length r) are applied to cover the image. The number of pore pixels (Nr) within each grid is calculated.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Failure modes of partial concrete cubes. Due to space limitations, only three specimens immersed in pure water and one of the three specimens with different immersion concentrations and times are shown here. (<b>a</b>) Cubes immersed in pure water, showing minimal cracking and slight base crushing. (<b>b</b>) Cubes exposed to acid rain, with visible coarse aggregates and surface corrosion. (<b>c</b>) Cubes under moderate acid concentration, showing cracks, voids, and surface weakening. (<b>d</b>) Cubes under high-concentration acid, exhibiting severe cracking, void formation, and structural failure.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Stress–strain curve of concrete cubes. Three concrete cubes were carried out for each corrosion condition. However, for the sake of readability, only three specimens immersed in pure water and one of the three specimens in each corrosion condition are shown in this figure.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>The compressive strength results of concrete cube specimens under different corrosion conditions.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>The reduction rate of the compressive strength calculated according to Xie [<a href="#B11-buildings-15-00120" class="html-bibr">11</a>].</p> Full article ">
Show export options expand_more Show export options expand_less
Select all
Export citation of selected articles as:
 
Displaying articles 1-149
Previous Issue
Next Issue
Back to TopTop