Waetruski

Waetruski walikuwa taifa maalumu katika Italia ya kale. Waliishi katika Italia ya Kati na kuanzisha mji wa Roma.

Mwanzo wa ustaarabu wao ulikuwa mnamo mwaka 800 KK ukaishia katika miaka ya mwisho ya Jamhuri ya Roma.

Waliacha mabaki ya utamaduni wenye mifano bora ya uchoraji na ujenzi. Utamaduni wao ulipotea katika mazingira ya Kiroma.

Wataalamu wengine huamini kuwa walihamia Italia kutoka Anatolia, lakini utafiti wa hivi karibuni^[1] umethibitisha kuwa ni wenyeji wa Italia, si tofauti sana na Walatini. Inawezekana walifikiriwa kutokea Mashariki kwa sababu tu waliathiriwa sana na ustaarabu wa Wagiriki.

Mwandiko wao uliotunzwa ukutani mwa makaburi wasomeka kirahisi kwa sababu ulifuata alfabeti ya Kigiriki pamoja na athira ya Wafinisia wa Mediteranea ya magharibi. Hata hivyo lugha ya Kietruski si rahisi kuielewa kwa sababu msamiati ni wa pekee; hadi sasa ni takriban maneno 200 tu yanayoeleweka. Kwa jumla si mojawapo ya lugha za Kihindi-Kiulaya; labda ni lugha ya wakazi asili ya eneo hilo, kabla ya kufikiwa na watu kutoka Ulaya Mashariki.

Waetruski walianzisha miji 12 waliohusiana kama shirikisho. Inaaminika ya kwamba misingi ya mji wa Roma ni ya Kietruski pia. Wafalme wa kwanza wa Roma walikuwa wa asili ya Kietruski. Hivyo hadi mwaka 396 Roma ilikuwa chini ya athira ya Waetruski.

Mwaka ule jeshi la Roma likateka na kuangamiza mji wa Veiji na kumaliza kipaumbele ya Waetruski katika Italia. Miji kadhaa ya Kietruski ilifanya mikataba ya Roma ikapewa uraia wa Kiroma hadi mwaka 90 KK. Baadaye utamaduni wa Kietruski ulianza kupotea wakati watu walipoacha kutumia lugha yao, kuhusiana pia na uhamiaji mkubwa kutoka mashariki mwa Bahari ya Kati (labda askari na watumwa).

• Antonio, Margaret L.; na wenz. (Novemba 8, 2019). "Ancient Rome: A genetic crossroads of Europe and the Mediterranean". Science. 366 (6466). American Association for the Advancement of Science: 708–714. doi:10.1126/science.aay6826.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link)
• Philipp Ammon: ''Ruma Rasna – Die etruskischen Wurzeln Roms''. http://www.academia.edu/28000848/Ruma_Rasna_Die_etruskischen_Wurzeln_Roms

• Bartoloni, Gilda (ed). Introduzione all'Etruscologia (in Italian). Milan: Hoepli, 2012.
• Sinclair Bell and Carpino A. Alexandra (eds). A Companion to the Etruscans, Oxford; Chichester; Malden, MA: Wiley Blackwell, 2016.
• Bonfante, Giuliano and Bonfante Larissa. The Etruscan Language: An Introduction. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2002.
• Bonfante, Larissa. Out of Etruria: Etruscan Influence North and South. Oxford: B.A.R., 1981.
• Bonfante, Larissa. Etruscan Life and Afterlife: A Handbook of Etruscan Studies. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1986.
• Bonfante, Larissa. Etruscan Myths. London: British Museum Press, 2006.
• Briquel, Dominique. Les Étrusques, peuple de la différence, series Civilisations U, éditions Armand Colin, Paris, 1993.
• Briquel, Dominique. La civilisation étrusque, éditions Fayard, Paris, 1999.
• De Grummond, Nancy T. (2014). Ethnicity and the Etruscans. In McInerney, Jeremy (ed.). A Companion to Ethnicity in the Ancient Mediterranean. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 405–422.
• Haynes, Sybille. Etruscan Civilization: A Cultural History. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2000.
• Izzet, Vedia. The Archaeology of Etruscan Society. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
• Naso, Alessandro (ed). Etruscology, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2017.
• Pallottino, Massimo. Etruscologia. Milan: Hoepli, 1942 (English ed., The Etruscans. David Ridgway, editor. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1975).
• Shipley, Lucy. The Etruscans: Lost Civilizations, London: Reaktion Books, 2017.
• Smith, C. The Etruscans: a very short introduction , Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.
• Spivey, Nigel. Etruscan Art. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1997.
• Swaddling, Judith and Philip Perkins. Etruscan by Definition: The Culture, Regional, and Personal Identity of the Etruscans: Papers in Honor of Sybille Haynes. London: British Museum, 2009.
• Turfa, Jean MacIntosh (ed). The Etruscan World. London: Routledge, 2013.
• Turfa, Jean MacIntosh. The Etruscans. In Farney, Gary D.; Bradley, Gary (eds.). The Peoples of Ancient Italy. Berlin: De Gruyter. pp. 637–672.

• (Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici dell'Umbria) "The Cai Cutu Etruscan tomb" An undisturbed late Etruscan family tomb, reused between the 3rd and 1st century BC, reassembled in the National Archeological Museum of Perugia
• Hypogeum of the Volumnis digital media archive (creative commons-licensed photos, laser scans, panoramas), data from a University of Ferrara/CyArk research partnership

Wikimedia Commons ina media kuhusu:

Waetruski

Wikiquote ina mkusanyiko wa dondoo kuhusu:

Waetruski

• "Etruscan weapons and warfare". Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 30 Januari 2016. Iliwekwa mnamo 3 Novemba 2017. {{cite web}}: More than one of |accessdate= na |access-date= specified (help); More than one of |archivedate= na |archive-date= specified (help); More than one of |archiveurl= na |archive-url= specified (help)
• "Etruscan Lion Plaque Pendant". Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 9 Mei 2017. Iliwekwa mnamo 2 Februari 2002. {{cite web}}: More than one of |accessdate= na |access-date= specified (help); More than one of |archivedate= na |archive-date= specified (help); More than one of |archiveurl= na |archive-url= specified (help)
• "The place of the Etruscans in world civilisation". Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2021-06-06. Iliwekwa mnamo 2021-09-25.

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