Abstract
Advances in automation technology are leading to development of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) concepts in which a single pilot is responsible for multiple UAVs. With these highly automated UAVs, the operator’s role will become more supervisory in nature. In response, a new interface paradigm is required for effective supervisory control of multiple UAVs by a single operator. This chapter introduces a variety of display and control concepts that may be especially applicable to multi-UAV applications. Many of these are technologies being investigated at the United States Air Force Research Laboratory and include multimodal interfaces, temporal displays, and integrated visualization concepts. For any candidate technology, however, rigorous user-centered design and evaluation needs to be conducted that focuses on the tasks and requirements of the specific multi-UAV application being targeted. It is also important to ensure that the operator has adequate means to first observe and then direct the automation’s functioning in order to be responsive to changes in the mission, vehicle status, or operational environment.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
S. Abedin, M. Lewis, N. Brooks, S. Owens, P. Scerri, K. Sycara, SUAVE: integrating UAV video using a 3D model. Proc. Hum. Factors Ergon. Soc. Ann. Meet. 1(1), 91–94 (2011)
Analytical Graphics, Inc., A case study: tactical 3-D COP (Battlespace Visualization for the U.S. Navy’s GCCS-M System, 2006), http://www.agi.com/downloads/products/by-product-type/applications/stk/stk- for- c4isr/0305_T3DC0P_case_study. pdf
T.J. Batkiewicz, K.C. Dohse, V. Kalivarapu, T. Dohse, B. Walter, J. Knutzon, D. Parkhurst, E. Winer, J. Oliver, Multimodal UAV ground control station, in AIAA/ISSMO Multidisciplinary Analysis and Optimization Conference, AIAA-2006-6963, 2006, 1–10
B. Bell, S. Feiner, T. Hollerer, View management for virtual and augmented reality, in ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology, Nov 2001 (ACM, New York, 2001), pp. 101–110
A.M. Bisantz, R.T. Stone, J. Pfautz, A. Fouse, M. Farry, E. Roth, A.L. Nagy, G. Thomas, Visual representations of meta-information. J. Cogn. Eng. Decis. Mak. 3(1), 67–91 (2009)
R.S. Bolia, W.T. Nelson, Spatial audio displays for target acquisition and speech communications, in Virtual and Adaptive Environments: Applications, Implications, and Human Performance Issues, ed. by L.J. Hettinger, M.W. Haas (Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, 2003), pp. 187–197
Y. Boussemart, J. Las Fargeas, M.L. Cummings, N. Roy, Comparing learning techniques for hidden Markov models of human supervisory control behavior, in AIAA Infotech@Aerospace, Paper AIAA-2009-1842, 2009
G.L. Calhoun, M.H. Draper, Multi-sensory interfaces for remotely operated vehicles, in Human Factors of Remotely Operated Vehicles, ed. by N. Cooke, H. Pringle, H. Pedersen, O. Connor (Elsevier, New York, 2006), pp. 149–163
G.L. Calhoun, M.H. Draper, Unmanned aerial vehicles: enhancing video display utility, in Human-Robot Interactions in Future Military Operations, ed. by M. Barnes, F. Jentsch (Ashgate, Farnham, 2009), Chap. 13, pp. 229–248
G.L. Calhoun, J.V. Fontejon, M.H. Draper, H.A. Ruff, B.J. Guilfoos, Tactile and aural alerts in high auditory load UAV control environments. Proc. Hum. Factors Ergon. Soc. Ann. Meet. 49(1), 145–149 (2005)
G.L. Calhoun, M.H. Draper, H.A. Ruff, Operator interface research testbed for supervisory control of multiple unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), in Decision Making in Complex Environments, ed. by M. Cook, J. Noyes, Y. Masakowski (Hampshire England: Ashgate, Hampshire, 2007a), Chap. 10, pp. 105–115
G.L. Calhoun, H.A. Ruff, A. Lefebvre, M.H. Draper, A. Ayala, “Picture-in-Picture” augmentation of UAV workstation video display. Proc. Hum. Factors Ergon. Soc. Ann. Meet. 51(1), 70–74 (2007b)
G.L. Calhoun, L. Warfield, H.A. Ruff, S.E. Spriggs, N.F. Wright, Automated aid design for transitioning between camera views. Proc. Hum. Factors Ergon. Soc. Ann. Meet. 54(1), 413–417 (2010)
G. Calhoun, M. Draper, H. Ruff, T. Barry, C. Miller, J. Hamell, Future unmanned aerial systems control: feedback on a highly flexible operator-automation delegation interface concept, in AIAA Infotech@Aerospace, Paper AIAA-2012-2549, 2012
T.R. Carretta, M.J. Patzek, L. Warfield, S.E. Spriggs, A.J. Rowe, A. Gonzalez-Garcia, K.K. Liggett, Target Acquisition Involving Multiple Unmanned air Vehicles: Interface for Small Unmanned Systems (ISUS) Program, AFRL-RH-WP-TR-2009-0021, 2009
S. Chatty, P. Leocoanet, Pen computing for air traffic control, in Proceedings of CHI’96, Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (1996), pp. 87–94, http://sigchi.org/chi96/proceedings/papers/Chatty/sc_txt.htm
J. Chen, M.J. Barnes, M. Harper-Sciarini, Supervisory control of multiple robots: humanperformance issues and user-interface design. IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern. C 41(4), 435–454 (2010)
M.C. Chuah, S.G. Eick, Information rich glyphs for software management data. IEEE Comput. Graph. Appl. 18(4, July–Aug), 24–29 (1998)
W.H. Chun, T. Spura, F.C. Alvidrez, R.J. Stiles, Spatial dialog and unmanned aerial vehicles, in Human Factors of Remotely Operated Vehicles, ed. by N. Cooke, H. Pringle, H. Pedersen, O. Connor (Elsevier, New York, 2006), pp. 193–208
M.L. Cummings, A.S. Brzezinski, Global vs. local decision support for multiple independent UAV schedule management. Int. J. Appl. Decis. Sci. 3(3), 188–205 (2010)
M.L. Cummings, P.J. Mitchell, Managing multiple UAVs through a timeline display, in AIAA Infotech@Aerospace, AIAA-2005-7060, 2005
M.L. Cummings, J.J. Marquez, M. Visser, Shadow TUAV Single Operator Consolidation: Display Assessment. Human Automation Laboratory Technical Report HAL-2007-01, MIT, Cambridge, Jan 2007
A-Q. Dao, V. Battiste, S. Granada-Vigil, Evaluation of the usefulness and usability of cockpit situation display perspectives for ROV operations in approach civil air space. Proc. Hum. Factors Ergon. Soc. 50(1), 161–165 (2006)
Department of Defense, MIL-STD-2525B: Department of Defense Interface Standard: Common Warfighting Symbology, Department of defence, Washington DC, Revised Change, 1st edn. (2005)
Department of Defense, Unmanned Systems Roadmap 2007-2032, Office of the Secretary of Defense, Washington, DC, 2007
M.H. Draper, G.L. Calhoun, H.A. Ruff, D. Williamson, T. Barry, Manual versus speech input for unmanned aerial vehicle control station operations. Proc. Hum. Factors Ergon. Soc. Ann. Meet. 47(1), 109–113 (2003)
M.H. Draper, G. Calhoun, J. Nelson, A. Lefebvre, H. Ruff, Synthetic vision overlay concepts for uninhabited aerial vehicle operations: evaluation of update rate on four operator tasks, in Proceedings of the NATO RTO Human Factors and Medicine Panel Symposium, HFM-135, Symposium on Human Factors of Uninhabited Military Vehicles as Force Multiplier, Biarritz, France (RTO/NATO, Neuilly sur Seine, 2006), pp. 18–1–18–30
M.H. Draper, et al., Advanced UMV operator interface, in Uninhabited Military Vehicles (UMVs): Human Factors Issues in Augmenting the Force (NATO Report RTO-TR-HFM-078) (NATO RTO, Neuilly-sur-Siene, 2007), Chap. 6
M. Duquette, The common mission automation services interface, in AIAA Infotech@Aerospace 2011, AIAA-2011-1542, 2011
P.J. Durlach, J.L. Neumann, L.D. Bowens, Evaluation of a touch screen-based operator control interface for training and remote operation of a simulated micro-uninhabited aerial vehicle, in Human Factors of Remotely Operated Vehicles, ed. by N. Cooke, H. Pringle, H. Pedersen, O. Connor (Elsevier, New York, 2006), pp. 165–178
J.W. Eggers, M.H. Draper, Multi-UAV control for tactical reconnaissance and close air support missions: operator perspectives and design challenges, in Proceedings of the NATO RTO Human Factors and Medicine Panel Symposium HFM-135 held in Biarritz, France, 9–11 Oct 2006 (NATO TRO, Neuilly-sur-Siene, 2006)
M. Endsley, Theoretical underpinnings of situation awareness: a critical review, in Situation Awareness Analysis and Measurements, ed. by M.R. Endsley, D.J., Garland (Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, 2000)
M. Endsley, Designing for Situation Awareness: An Approach to User-Centered Design (CRC, Boca Raton, 2011)
M. Endsley, D. Kaber, Level of automation effects on performance, situation awareness and workload in a dynamic control task. Ergonomics 42(3), 462–492 (1999)
G.L. Feitshans, A.J. Rowe, J.E. Davis, M. Holland, L. Berger, Vigilant spirit control station (VSCS): the face of COUNTER, in AIAA Guidance, Navigation and Control Conference and Exhibit, AIAA-2008-6309, 2008
L. Fern, R.J. Shively, A comparison of varying levels of automation on the supervisory control of multiple UASs, in Proceedings of the Association for Unmanned Vehicle Systems International (AUVSI) North America 2009, Washington DC, 2009
V. Finomore, D. Popik, R. Dallman, J. Stewart, K. Satterfield, C. Castle, Demonstration of a network-centric communication management suite: multi-modal communication. Proc. Hum. Factors Ergon. Soc. 55(1), 1832–1835 (2011)
D.J. Gardner-Bonneau, Human Factors and Voice Interactive Systems (Kluwer Academic, Boston, 1999)
S. Green, S. Richardson, V. Slavin, R. Stiles, Spatial dialog for space system autonomy, in Proceedings of the 2nd ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (ACM, New York, 2007), pp. 341–348
M.L. Hanson, E. Roth, C.M. Hopkins, V. Mancuso, Designing human system interfaces for supervising multiple UAV teams, in Proceedings of the 42nd AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting and Exhibit, AIAA-2004-1305, 2004
B.P. Hunn, Video Imagery’s role in network centric, multiple unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) operations, in Human Factors of Remotely Operated Vehicles, ed. by N. Cooke, H. Pringle, H. Pedersen, O. Connor (Elsevier, New York, 2006), pp. 179–192
R. Johnson, M. Leen, D. Goldberg, Testing Adaptive Levels of Automation (ALOA) for UAV Supervisory Control, AFRL-HE-WP-TR-2007-0068, Air Force Research Laboratory, 2007
D.-M. Kim, D. Kim, J. Kim, N. Kim, J. Suk, Development of near-real-time simulation environment for multiple UAVs, in International Conference on Control, Automation and Systems, Seoul, (2007), pp. 817–820
A. Leganchuk, S. Zhai, W. Buxton, Manual and cognitive benefits of two-handed input: an experimental study. ACM Trans. Comput. Hum. Interact. 5(4), 326–359 (1998)
M. Lewis, J. Polvichai, K. Sycara, P. Scerri, Scaling-up human control for large UAV teams, in Human Factors of Remotely Operated Vehicles, ed. by N.Cooke, H. Pringle, H. Pedersen, O. Connor (Elsevier, New York, 2006), pp. 237–250
D.F. McAllister, Stereo & 3D display technologies, display technology, in Encyclopedia of Imaging Science and Technology, 2 Volume Set, ed. by J.P. Hornak (Wiley, New York, 2002), pp. 1327–1344. ISBN: 978-0-471-33276-3, http://research.csc.ncsu.edu/stereographics/wiley.pdf
C.A. Miller, R. Parasuraman, Designing for flexible interaction between humans and automation: delegation interfaces for supervisory control. Hum. Factors 40(1), 57–75 (2007)
C. Miller, R. Goldman, H. Funk, P. Wu, B. Pate, A playbook approach to variable autonomy control: application for control of multiple, heterogeneous unmanned air vehicles, in Proceedings of FORUM 60, the Annual Meeting of the American Helicopter Society (United States American Helicopter Society, Alexandria, 2004), pp. 2146–2157
T. Oron-Gilad, T. Porat, J. Silbiger, M. Rottem-Hovev, Decision support tools and layouts for MOMU (multiple operator multiple UAV) environments, in Proceedings of the International Symposium on Aviation 974 Psychology, Wright State University, Dayton, Ohio (2011)
S. Oviatt, Multimodal Interfaces for dynamic interactive maps, in Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems: Common Ground (1996), pp. 95–102, http://www.cse.ori.edu/CHCC/Publications/Papers/sharonPaper/text.html
M. Patzek, D. Zimmer, G. Feitshans, Multi-UAV supervisory control interface technology (MUS- CIT) demonstration, in Supervisory Control of Multiple Uninhabited Systems - Methodologies and Enabling Human-Robot Interface Technologies, (NATO Report RTO-TR-HFM- 170), Neuilly-sur-Siene (2012)
C. Plaisant, A. Sears, Touchscreen interfaces for alphanumeric data entry. Proc. Hum. Factors Soc. 36(4), 293–297 (1991)
T. Porat, T. Oron-Gilad, J. Silbiger, M. Rottem-Hovev, ‘Castling Rays’ a decision support tool for UAV-switching tasks, in Computer Human Interaction - CHI (ACM, New York, 2010), pp. 3589–3594
T. Porat, T. Oron-Gilad, J. Silbiger, M. Rottem-Hovev, Switch and deliver: display layouts for MOMV (multiple operators multiple video feeds) environments, in IEEE International Multi-Disciplinary Conference on Cognitive Methods in Situation Awareness & Decision Support - CogSIMA (IEEE, Piscataway, 2011), pp. 264–267
R. Rousseau, S. Tremblay, D. Lafond, F. Vachon, R. Breton, Assessing temporal support for dynamic decision making in C2. Proc. Hum. Factors Ergon. Soc. 51(18), 1259–1262 (2007)
A.J. Rowe, K.K. Liggett, J.E. Davis, Vigilant spirit control station: a research testbed for multi- UAS supervisory control interfaces, in Proceedings of the International Symposium on Aviation Psychology, Wright State University, Dayton, Ohio (2009)
A. Rudnicky, Speech Interface Guidelines. School of Computer Science, Carnegie Mellon University, 1996, http://www.speech.cs.cmu.edu/air/interfaces.html
B.M. Scott, V. Conzola, Designing touch screen numeric keypads: effects of finger size, key size, and key spacing. Proc. Hum. Factors Ergon. Soc. 41(1), 360–364 (1997)
S.D. Scott, S. Mercier, M.L. Cummings, E. Wang, Assisting interruption recovery in supervisory control of multiple UAVs. Proc. Hum. Factors Ergon. Ann. Meet. 50(1), 699–703 (2006)
B. Shneiderman, Designing the User Interface: Strategies for Effective Human-Computer- Interaction (Addison Wesley, Boston, 1987)
B.D. Simpson, R.S. Bolia, M.H. Draper, Spatial audio display concepts supporting situation awareness for operators of unmanned aerial vehicles, in Proceedings of the Human Performance, Situation Awareness and Automation Conference (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, 2004), pp. 61–65
H.S., Smallman, M. St. John, Naïve realism: misplaced faith in realistic displays. Ergon. Des. 13(3), 6–13 (2005)
H.S. Smallman, M. St. John, M.B. Cowen, Limits of display realism: human factors issues in visualizing the common operational picture, in Visualisation and the Common Operational Picture (RTO, Neuilly sur-Seine, 2005), pp. 16–1–16–18. Meeting Proceedings RTO-MP- IST-043, Paper 16. Available from: http://www.rto.nato.int/abstracts.asp, http://www.vistg.net/IST043_Official/RTO- MP- IST- 043/MP- IST- 043- 16.pdf
S. Spriggs, L. Warfield, G. Calhoun, H. Ruff, Orientation of a temporal display for multi-unmanned aerial vehicle supervisory control, in Proceedings of the HCI-Aero 2010 Crew-Ground Integration Symposium, Cape Canaveral, FL, (2010)
M. St. John, M.A. King, The four-second supervisor: multi-tasking supervision and its support. Proc. Hum. Factors Ergon. Soc. 54(4), 468–472 (2010)
M. St. John, M.B. Cowen, H.S. Smallman, H.M. Oonk, The use of 2D and 3D displays for shape- understanding versus relative-position tasks. Hum. Factors 43(1), 79–98 (2001)
M. St. John, D.I. Manes, H.S. Smallman, B.A. Feher, J.G. Morrison, Heuristic automation for decluttering tactical displays. Proc. Hum. Factors Ergon. Soc. Ann. Meet. 48(3), 416–420 (2004)
J. Tadema, Unmanned Aircraft Systems HMI & Automation: Tackling Control, Integrity and Integration Issues (Shaker, Maastricht, 2011). ISBN 978-90-423-0405-5
H. van Veen, H., J. van Erp, Tactile information presentation in the cockpit, in Proceedings of the Haptic Human-Computer Interaction Workshop, University of Glasgow, 2003, pp. 50–53
H. Veltman, A. Oving, Augmenting camera images for operators of unmanned aerial vehicles, in The Role of Humans in Intelligent and Automated Systems (NATO Report RTO-MP-HFM-088) (NATO RTO, Neuilly-sur-Siene, 2003), Chap. 21, pp. 1–10
R. Whitaker, G. Thomas-Meyers, Knowledge Glyphs: Visualization Theory Development to Support C2 Practice, AFRL-HE-WP-TP-2006-0050, Air Force Research Laboratory, 2006
C.D. Wickens, Multiple resources and performance prediction. Theor. Issues Ergon. Sci. 2, 159–177 (2002)
D. Wigdor, D. Wixon, Brave NUI World: Designing Natural User Interfaces for Touch and Gesture (Morgan Kaufmann, Burlington, 2011)
M.S. Wogalter, S.D. Leonard, Attention capture and maintenance, in Warnings and Risk Communications, ed. by M.S. Wogalter, D.M. DeJoy, K.R. Laughery (Taylor and Francis, London, 1999), pp. 123–148
D.D. Woods, Visual momentum: a concept to improve the cognitive coupling of person and computer. Int. J. Man Mach. Stud. 21, 229–244 (1984)
D.D. Woods, J. Tittle, M. Feil, A. Roesler, Envisioning human-robot coordination in future operations. IEEE Trans. Syst. Man Cybern. C 34(2), 210–218 (2004)
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2015 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
About this entry
Cite this entry
Calhoun, G.L., Draper, M.H. (2015). Display and Control Concepts for Multi-UAV Applications. In: Valavanis, K., Vachtsevanos, G. (eds) Handbook of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-9707-1_88
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-9707-1_88
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht
Print ISBN: 978-90-481-9706-4
Online ISBN: 978-90-481-9707-1
eBook Packages: EngineeringReference Module Computer Science and Engineering