Shandao

Shandao was born in what is now Zhucheng, in Shandong Province, China. When he was young, he entered the priesthood. Under master Master Mingsheng of Mizhou, a teacher of the Sanlun (Madhyamaka) school, he studied the Lotus Sutra and Vimalakirti Sutra.^[5][6] One day, in the year 641, he visited the temple of the famous Pure Land master Daochuo (562–645), who happened to be giving a lecture on the Amitayus Contemplation Sutra. This lecture ultimately inspired him to become Daochuo's disciple, so he could follow and then spread Pure Land Buddhism.^[7]

After Daochuo's death, Shandao traveled to the imperial capital at Chang'an (modern Shaanxi) to preach Pure Land Buddhism.^[3] There, Shandao dwelt at Xiangji Temple (Chinese: 香积寺; pinyin: xiāngjī sì), which continues to honor his memory and contributions.

In his lifetime, Shandao wrote five major works on Pure Land Buddhism, with his commentaries on the Contemplation Sutra being among the most influential.^[3]

Shandao synthesized much of the teachings of earlier Chinese Pure Land Buddhists, such as Tanluan and Daochuo, however, he also introduced new ideas that became central to both Chinese and Japanese Pure Land traditions. The key four ideas of Shandao's thought are:^[8]

1. Once born there, all beings can equally perceive the Pure Land of Amitabha (Sukhāvatī) in its true form (as a “reward land”). This attainment does not depend on the meditative qualities or level of purification of the practitioner, instead it depends on the Buddha's vows and merit.^[9]
2. The ten nianfos cited in both the Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra and the Amitayurdhyana Sutra are oral recitations (kǒuchēng 口稱, also called the “ten sounds”, shíshēng 十聲). Previous interpretations were more ambiguous in interpreting the meaning of the term niàn (念). Shandao was the first to define these as “orally holding Amitāyus’s name” (kǒuchēng Mítuó mínghào 口稱彌陀名號).^[4] Shandao even applies this interpretation in cases where a text does not clearly state that nian refers to oral repetition.^[4]
3. All nine levels of rebirth in the Pure Land discussed by the Amitayurdhyana Sutra were accomplished by ordinary people not advanced āryas (noble sages). The lowest level includes even people who have committed the worst of evils but have converted and said the nianfo wishing to be reborn in the Pure Land.^[10]
4. Rebirth in the Pure Land comes primarily through Amitabha Buddha's vow rather than one's own efforts. Shandao writes that the vows are "the direct and empowering cause" (zēngshàng yuàn 增上緣) of rebirth in the Pure Land. Most previous authors (except Tanluan) had held that Amitabha merely creates the Pure Land, but that it is our own deeds and merit that takes us there.^[11]

 

Shandao also defended the view that Amitabha was perceived as a reward-body Buddha (samboghakaya) and that Sukhavati was seen as a reward-land by beings who were reborn there. He thus went against a common idea in China at the time which saw Amitabha and his Pure Land as a transformation body (nirmanakaya) with limited lifespan.^[3] However, he was also adamant that even though this Pure Land was a glorious reward land, it was not accessible only to Buddhas and bodhisattvas (a common feature of samboghakaya buddha-fields), but was actually accessible to all beings.^[3] This is because the power of Amitabha's vows can carry all beings to the Pure Land:

If we discuss the hindrances of the defilements of the sentient beings, It is very difficult to wish to be born in the Pure Land. [However], if we rely completely on the power of the essential vow of Amitabha Buddha, [the reliance] becomes a powerful condition by which all five vehicles are, with equanimity, permitted to enter the Pure Land.^[3]

Shandao also innovated in his discussion of the nine grades of rebirth into the Pure Land, which he divided into three main categories: higher, middling, and lower. Each category is further divided into three, thus, there is the highest of the higher level, the middle higher, and the lower higher, etc.^[3] For Shandao, all of these grades are for different types of sentient beings. This contrasts with previous authors who had argued that higher levels were for bodhisattvas and the lower levels were for ordinary people.^[3]

Shandao also held that ordinary people could easily be born in the Pure Land by reciting the Buddha's name. Previous authors had argued that to even be born in the lowest grades one needed to have some spiritual attainment in practicing Mahayana Buddhism.^[12] Shandao even argues that even those who have committed the "five grave deeds" (which includes killing one's parents, injuring a Buddha, etc) can attain the Pure Land through the Buddha's power.^[3]

Another important teaching of Shandao is the schema of the Triple Minds (三心), which indicate the faithful mental attitude (the "true mind") that is needed to attain rebirth in the Pure land.^[13] This is derived from a passage in the Sutra on the Visualization of Amitayus which states that beings who are born in the highest grade are "sentient beings who resolve to be born in that land, awaken the threefold mind and so are born there."^[14] The sutra goes on to explain that the three are: "first, a sincere mind; second, a deep mind; and third, a mind that seeks birth there by transferring one's merit. Those who have these three kinds of mind will certainly be born there."^[14]

In Hymns in Praise of Birth (Wangsheng Lizan Ji, 往生礼讃), Shandao explains the three minds as follows:

If you wish to attain birth in that land unfailingly, you should possess the three minds as mentioned in the Contemplation Sutra and, then, ensure birth there. What are the three minds? First, sincere mind; worshiping that Buddha as the bodily act, praising and glorifying him as the verbal act, and concentrating on and contemplating him as the mental act - in performing those three kinds of acts, you are required to be sincere. Hence, this is called 'sincere mind.'Second, deep mind; this is the true faith which accepts that you are an ordinary person full of evil passions, possessed of few roots of good, subject to transmigration in the three worlds, and unable to escape from the 'burning house'; nevertheless, now you recognize the fact that Amitabha's Universal Primal Vow definitely ensures birth in the Pure Land of those who recite the Name even ten times or down to once. Since you do not entertain even a single thought of doubt, such a state of mind is called 'deep mind.' Third, making aspiration for birth through merit-transference; you aspire for birth through transferring all the roots of good towards it; hence, such a state of mind is called 'making an aspiration for birth through merit-transference.'Those who possess all the three minds unfailingly attain birth. If one of them is lacking, birth cannot be attained. Detailed expositions are given in the Contemplation Sutra.^[15]

Furthermore, in his commentary to the Contemplation Sutra, he indicates that the true mind of faith includes an ethical commitment to avoid evil and do good:

There are two types of truly benefiting oneself: First, within the true mind one should prevent and discard all of the various evils of self and other, defiled lands, etc., and think 'Just as all the bodhisattvas prevent and discard all the various evils, so too will I'....One should necessarily discard non-good in the three types of action [bodily, verbal, mental] within the mind of truth. Also when one does good, one should necessarily do it within the mind of truth.^[16]

However, Shandao is also clear that ethical action, no matter how good, will not lead to birth in the Pure land. Thus he warns against merely doing good outwardly, against pretentiously and "strenuously" working to do good. He calls this self-centered action, "good tainted with poison".^[17] As such, we must not have any faith on our good actions or other individual qualities, but on Amitabha's vow-power. For Shandao, anyone seeking Buddhahood must recognize that "one is an evil, ordinary being", and then when "one without doubt or hesitation gives oneself over to the power of the vows" one will definitely attain birth in the pure land.^[18]

Shandao discusses Pure Land practice in various ways. His most general schema is one which divides practices into primary practices (zhengxing) and miscellaneous practices (zaxing).^[3] For Shandao, the primary Pure Land practices are:^[3]

1. Recitation of the Pure Land sutras
2. Meditation and visualization of Amitabha
3. Worshiping and bowing to Amitabha
4. Oral recitation of Amitabha's name
5. Singing praises and making offerings to Amitabha

Shandao further highlights the importance of nianfo, the oral recitation of Buddha's name (in Chinese: Nāmó Ēmítuófó, 南無阿彌陀佛, "Homage to Amitabha Buddha"), by classifying it as the "primary deed" (zhengye), while calling the other four practices "auxiliary" (zhuye). This indicates that for him, oral recitation of Amitabha's name is the most important practice out of the five.^[3] Miscellaneous practices on the other hand include all other practices, including keeping Buddhist precepts, doing meritorious acts, other forms of Buddhist meditation and so forth.^[3]

 

In Hymns in Praise of Birth, Shandao also taught the "Five Mindful Practices" and "Four Modes of [Pure Land Buddhist] Practice" (四修).^[15]

The Five Mindful Practices, which Shandao quotes directly from Vasubandhu's Discourse on the Pure Land (Jìngtǔ lùn 浄土論) are: (1) worship Amitabha reverentially with a concentrated mind and make offerings; (2) praise the glory of Amitabha and his Pure Land; (3) concentrate, contemplate and think of Amitabha and the noble beings of the Pure Land; (4) aspire to be born in the Pure Land with a sincere heart; and (5) concentrate on and rejoice in your good deeds and the good deeds done by all beings and dedicate the merit of all good deeds towards birth in the Pure Land.^[15]

The Four Modes of Practice are described by Shandao as:^[15]

1. First, reverential practice: this is to revere and worship the Buddha and all the holy sages in his assembly; hence, this is called 'reverential practice.' Perform this act continuously with determination until the end of your life; this is a long term practice.
2. Second, exclusive practice; this is to recite the Buddha's Name exclusively, be mindful of, contemplate, worship and praise the Buddha and all the holy sages exclusively without mixing other acts with these; hence, this is called 'exclusive practice.' Perform these acts continuously with determination until the end of your life; this is a long term practice.
3. Third, uninterrupted practice: this is to perform acts of reverence, worship, recitation of the Name, praise, mindfulness, contemplation, making aspiration and transferring your merits uninterruptedly with continuous concentration, without mixing other acts with these; hence, this is called 'uninterrupted practice.' Do not allow evil passions, such as greed and anger, to arise to interrupt your practice. Whenever you commit faults, repent immediately. Without awaiting moments, passage of time, and days, keep your practice pure and unadulterated; and so this is called 'uninterrupted practice.'
4. Perform these acts continuously with determination until the end of your life; this is a long term practice.

Aside from nianfo, Shandao often emphasized other textual, meditative and ritual practices. Shandao's tract, "The Meritorious Dharma Gate of the Samādhi Involving Contemplation of the Ocean-like Marks of the Buddha Amitābha" (Chinese: 阿彌陀佛相海三昧功德法門; Pinyin: Ēmítuófó xiāng hǎi sānmèi gōngdé fǎmén) emphasizes samādhi and ritual practice. Also, Shandao's direct disciples, such as Huaigan, were recorded as having emphasized meditation practices.^[19] Similarly, Shandao's Fǎshì Zàn (法事讚) focuses on the ritual recitation of the Amitabha Sutra in front of an altar with a statue of the Buddha.^[20] Shandao also practiced copying the Pure Land sutras. The Xu Gaoseng zhuan contains a biography of Shandao which states that "after he entered the capital, he preached his teaching extensively. He transcribed the Amituo jing (Amitabha Sutra) many tens of thousands of times."^[21]

In addition, Shandao's expositions on the Pure Land are also rooted in classic Madhyamika and Yogacara principles, indicating his deep study of the Buddhist philosophical tradition.^[19] Shandao was also noted to be a practitioner who engaged in ascetic practices such as never lying down to sleep and constantly practicing samādhi and ritual activity, and he is said to have advised other people to do the same.^[22]

 

In his Commentary on the Amitāyurdhyāna Sūtra, Shandao described the Pure Land Buddhist path using a now famous parable known as the Parable of the Two Rivers and White Path (Ch: 二河白道) which describes a man harried by bandits and wild beasts who comes to a river bank. Spanning a river is a narrow, white path, while on one side the river is made of churning water, and the other fire. Then, the man hears a voice calling from the other side of the river, assuring him that if he crosses the path, he will be safe.

The voice on the other side of the river is said to be Amitabha Buddha leading the follower across toward the Pure Land.

According to Charles Jones, Shandao conceived of it to be possible for one to fail to be born "at the final moment ... if impure persons defiled the ritual space and allowed demonic beings to invade."^[23] Some sources may indicate this possibility.

In one text, "The Meritorious Dharma Gate of the Samādhi Involving Contemplation of the Ocean-like Marks of the Buddha Amitābha" (Chinese: 阿彌陀佛相海三昧功德法門; Pinyin: Ēmítuófó xiāng hǎi sānmèi gōngdé fǎmén), Shandao describes a specific set of ritual protocols and practices for helping dying Buddhist devotees achieve successful deliverance from “evil destinies” and procure successful rebirth in the Pure Land.^[19]

Another text called "Correct Mindfulness for Rebirth at the Moment of Death" (Chinese: 臨終往生正念文; Pinyin: Línzhōng wǎngshēng zhèngniàn wén), often attributed to Shandao, presents a nuanced understanding of the rebirth process and details many dangers that can hinder the dying aspirant’s rebirth in the Pure Land.^[19] However, according to Dao Duan Liangxiu, this text has long been considered by scholars to have been a later composition that began to circulate widely in the Song dynasty, and to be a false attribution.^[24]

There are also various hagiographical records concerning Shandao which reflect concerns regarding more complicated requirements for rebirth in the Pure Land, including but not limited to recitation of Amitābha's name on one's deathbed specifically.^[22][19]

At the same time, Shandao and his disciple Huaigan emphasised that all ordinary beings, no matter their level of attainment, are capable of birth by the power of the Buddha's vows, and that "even the worst evil-doer could say the name of the Buddha and gain immediate access to a glittering Pure Land immediately after death."^[23] In particular that utterance is interpreted by Shandao as calling "Amitābha Buddha for seven days or even for one day for as little as ten oral invocations or even one oral calling or one contemplation," and that birth in the Pure Land was not for superior practitioners, but for the lowest kinds of people who have performed "unwholesome acts: the Five Heinous Deeds, the ten evils, and everything that is not good."^[23]

Shandao wrote several texts, including Mahayana commentaries.

Shandao's extant works include:^[3]

• The Commentary on the Contemplation Sūtra (Chinese: 觀無量壽經疏; Pinyin: Guān wúliàngshòu jīng shū; Hepburn: Kanmuryōju kyō sho). Taishō no. 1753, in four fascicles. This is his magnum opus, which discussed nianfo (reciting the name of Amitabha) as the main way to achieve birth in the Pure Land.
  • English translation: Peter Lunde Johnson (2020), The Land of Pure Bliss, On the Nature of Faith & Practice in Greater Vehicle (Mahāyāna) Buddhism.^[25]
  • The Two Rivers and the White Path (二河白道), translation by Inagaki of a passage from this text
• The Dharma Gate of the Merits of the Ocean-like Samādhi of the Contemplation of the Marks of Amitābha Buddha (Chinese: 觀念阿彌陀佛相海三昧功德法門; Pinyin: Guānniàn āmítuó fó xiāng hǎisānmèi gōngdé fǎmén; Hepburn: Kannen amida butsu sō kai sammai kudoku hōmen). Taishō no. 1959, in one fascicle. This text discusses the various meditations found in the Contemplation Sutra. English translation: Inagaki "The Method of Contemplation of Amida".
• Praise of Dharma Services (Chinese: 法事讚; Pinyin: Fǎshì Zàn; Hepburn: Hōji San), full title: Liturgy for the Rite of Desiring Birth in the Pure Land Through Chanting Sutras and Circumambulation. Taishō no. 1979, in two fascicles. It discusses a ritual for reciting the Smaller Sukhavati Sutra.
• Verses in Praise for Rebirth in the Pure Land (Chinese: 往生禮讚偈; Pinyin: Wǎngshēng lǐ zànjié; Hepburn: Ōjō rai sange). Taishō no. 1980, in one fascicle.
  • English translation: Zuio Hisao Inagaki (2002), Liturgy for Birth. Online Version. Print version: (2009) Shan-dao's Liturgy for Birth: Ōjōraisan. Annotated Translation by Hisao Inagaki. Edited by Doyi Tan.^[26]
• Praise of Pratyutpanna (Chinese: 般舟讚; Pinyin: Pánzhōu Zàn; Hepburn: Hanjū San), full title: Hymns Praising Birth in the Pure Land Through the Practice of Pratyupanna-Samadhi on the Basis of the Meditation Sutra and other Sutras. Taishō no. 1981, in one fascicle.

Shandao had an influence on many later Chinese Buddhist figures who wrote on Pure Land Buddhism, including those later Chinese masters considered to be Pure Land patriarchs, like Fazhao and Wulong Shaokang, who was eventually considered to be a reincarnation of Shandao.^[27][28][24] Shandao's disciple, Huaigan (d. 699) became an influential author after his composition of Treatise explaining a number of doubts about Pure Land, (Shì jìngtǔ qúnyí lùn 釋淨土群疑論, T.1960) which expanded on Shandao's Pure Land views.^[29]

Furthermore, other figures like the Song era Vinaya school author Zhanran Yuanzhao (1048-1116) was influenced by Shandao's commentary on the Contemplation sutra and draws on it in his own commentary on this sutra.^[30] Another Song dynasty figure who draws on Shandao is Jiedu, who defends Shandao in his Refutation of New Criticisms (Fu Xin Lun).^[24] Indeed, Shandao's Pure Land works were influential on various Tiantai authors who wrote on Pure Land practice, and his influence on Tiantai Pure land was only second to Zhiyi's.^[24]

Shandao was also praised by later figures as well, including Yunqi Zhuhong in his Record of Rebirth (Wangsheng Zhuan) who calls Shandao “a figure rivaling Avalokiteshvara or Samantabhadra if not Amitābha himself.”^[24] Shandao is praised as a Pure Land patriarch in later works such as Treasury of the Lotus School (Lianzong Baojian) by Pudu, Collected Directions for Pure Land Practice (Jingtu Zhigui Ji) by Dayou in the Ming dynasty, Daoyan’s Concise Record of the Pure Land, and Qing scholar Zhaoying’s Painful Admonitions for Pure Practice (Jingye Tongce).^[24]

More recently, Dharma Master Huijing (1950-) and Dharma Master Jingzong (1966-, Abbot of Hongyuan Monastery) have founded a new lineage focused on the Pure land teachings of Shandao, which calls itself the "Shandao lineage".^[31]

 

In Japanese Pure Land traditions, such as Jōdo-shū and Jōdo Shinshū, Shandao is traditionally seen as having advocated for the exclusivity of the nianfo/nembutsu as a practice in order to seek salvation through Amitābha, meaning that reciting the name of Amitābha Buddha was all that was needed. Writers such as Julian Pas have suggested that these traditional narratives surrounding Shandao were misleading, and that rather he wrote extensive commentaries to scriptures regarding complex samādhi practices such as visualization and meditation, showing that he promoted different practices and methods.^[32][33][22]

On the other hand, defenders of the Japanese approach, such as Jérôme Ducor, have suggested that writers such as Pas have misrepresented the relevant Japanese sources, and that Shandao's scheme clearly delineates between "meditation sūtras" such as the Pratyutpanna Sūtra from sūtras that teach "birth in the Pure Land," among which are included the Infinite Life Sūtra, the Amitābha Sūtra, and the Amitāyurdhyāna Sūtra. Ducor also notes how Shandao's Commentary on the Amitāyurdhyāna Sūtra makes clear the distinction between birth in the Pure Land by faith and nianfo/nembutsu, which he regards as definitive and a "non-requested" teaching, from the meditative practices such as visualisation, which he regards as a skilful means and a teaching given only on request by Queen Vaidehī.^[34]

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• Jones, Charles B. (2019). Chinese Pure Land Buddhism: Understanding a Tradition of Practice, University of Hawaii Press
• Inagaki, Hisao, trans. (1999). Shan-tao's Exposition of the Method of Contemplation on Amida Buddha, part 1, Pacific World, Third Series, Number 1, 77–89.
• Inagaki, Hisao, trans. (2000). Shan-tao's Exposition of the Method of Contemplation on Amida Buddha, part 2, Pacific World, Third Series, Number 2, 207–228.
• Inagaki, Hisao, trans. (2001). Shan-tao's Exposition of the Method of Contemplation on Amida Buddha, part 3, Pacific World, Third Series, Number 3, 277–288.
• Pas, Julian F. (1995). Visions of Sukhavati: Shan-Tao's Commentary on the Kuan Wu-liang- Shou-Fo Ching. Albany, State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-7914-2520-7
• Johnson, Peter, trans. (2020). The Land of Pure Bliss, On the Nature of Faith & Practice in Greater Vehicle (Mahāyāna) Buddhism, Including a Full Translation of Shàndǎo's Commentary Explaining The Scripture About Meditation on the Buddha ‘Of Infinite Life’ (Amitāyur Buddha Dhyāna Sūtra, 觀無量壽佛經) [1], An Lac Publications ISBN 978-1-7923-4208-0

• Inagaki, Hisao: Biography of Shan-Tao A comprehensive look at Shan-Tao's life