Abstract
Problem solving is generally regarded as the most important cognitive activity in everyday and professional contexts. Most people are required to and rewarded for solving problems. However, learning to solve problems is too seldom required in formal educational settings, in part, because our understanding of its processes is limited. Instructional-design research and theory has devoted too little attention to the study of problem-solving processes. In this article, I describe differences among problems in terms of their structuredness, domain specificity (abstractness), and complexity. Then, I briefly describe a variety of individual differences (factors internal to the problem solver) that affect problem solving. Finally, I articulate a typology of problems, each type of which engages different cognitive, affective, and conative processes and therefore necessitates different instructional support. The purpose of this paper is to propose a metatheory of problem solving in order to initiate dialogue and research rather than offering a definitive answer regarding its processes.
Similar content being viewed by others
Explore related subjects
Discover the latest articles, news and stories from top researchers in related subjects.References
Anderson, J.R. (1980).Cognitive psychology and its implications. New York: Freeman.
Barrows, H.S. (1985).How to design a problem-based curriculum for the pre-clinical years. New York: Springer.
Barrows, H.S., & Tamblyn, R.M. (1980).Problem-based learning: An approach to medical education. New York: Springer.
Bransford, J., & Stein, B.S. (1984).The IDEAL problem solver: A guide for improving thinking, learning, and creativity. New York: W.H. Freeman. Bryson, M., Bereiter, C., Scardamalia, M., & Joram, E. (1991). Going beyond the problem as given: Problem solving in expert and novice writers. In R.J. Sternberg & P.A. Frensch (Eds.),Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms (pp. 61–84). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Davidson, J.E., & Sternberg, R.J. (1998). Smart problem solving: How metacognition helps. In D.J. Hacker, J. Dunlosky, & A.C. Graesser (Eds.),Metacognition in educational theory and practice (pp. 47–68). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Davis, J.K., & Haueisen, W.C. (1976). Field independence and hypothesis testing.Perceptual and Motor Skills, 43, 763–769.
Dörner, D., & Wearing, A.J. (1995). Complex problem solving: Toward a theory. In P.A. Frensch & J. Funke (Eds.),Complex problem solving: The European perspective (pp. 65–99). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Dunkle, M.E., Schraw, G., & Bendixen, L.D. (1995, April).Cognitive processes in well-defined and ill-defined problem solving. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA.
Durso, F.T., & Gronlund, S.D. (1999). Situation awareness. In F.T. Durso (Ed.),Handbook of applied cognition (pp. 283–314). Chichester, UK: John Wiley.
English, L.D. (1998). Children's reasoning in solving relational problems of deduction.Thinking & Reasoning, 4(3), 249–281.
Fishbein, D.D., Eckart, T., Lauver, E., van Leeuwen, R., & Langemeyer, D. (1990). Learners' questions and comprehension in a tutoring system.Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 163–170.
Flavell, J.H. (1979). Metacognition and comprehension monitoring: A new era of cognitive development inquiry.American Psychologist, 34, 906–911.
Forgas, J.P. (1982). Reactions to life dilemmas: Risk taking, success and responsibility attribution.Australian Journal of Psychology, 34, 25–35.
Funke, J. (1991). Solving complex problems: Exploration and control of complex systems. In R.J. Sternberg & P.A. Frensch (eds.),Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms (pp. 185–222). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Gagné, R.M. (1980).The conditions of learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
Gagné, R.M., Briggs, L.J., & Wager, W.W. (1992).Principles of instructional design (4th Ed.). New York: Harcourt, Brace, & Jovanovich.
Gagné, R.M., & Merrill, M.D. (1990). Integrative goals for instructional design.Educational Technology Research & Development, 38(1), 23–30 1990.
Gick, M.L. (1986). Problem-solving strategies.Educational Psychologist, 21(1&2), 99–120.
Gick, M.L., & Holyoak, K.J. (1980). Analogical problem solving.Cognitive Psychology, 12, 306–355.
Gick, M.L., & Holyoak, K.J. (1983). Schema induction and analogical transfer.Cognitive Psychology, 15, 1–38.
Goel, V., & Pirolli, P. (1989). Motivating the notion of generic design within information processing theory: The design problem space.AI Magazine, 10(1), 19–36.
Gordon, S.E., & Gill, R.T. (1989).The formation and use of knowledge structures in problem solving domains. Tech. Report AFOSR-88-0063. Washington, DC: Bolling AFB.
Gourgey, A.F. (1998). Metacognition and basic skills instruction.Instructional Science, 26, 81–96.
Greeno, J. (1978). Natures of problem-solving abilities. In W. Estes (Ed.),Handbook of learning and cognitive processes (pp. 239–270). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Greeno, J. (1991). A view of mathematical problem solving in school. In M.U. Smith (Ed.),Toward a unified theory of problem solving (pp. 69–98). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Guindon, R. (1990). Designing the design process: Exploiting opportunistic thoughts.Human-Computer Interaction, 5, 305–344.
Halgren, S.L., & Cooke, N.J. (1993). Towards ecological validity in menu research.International Journal of Man-Machine Studies, 39(1), 51–70.
Hall, E.P., Gott, S.P., & Pokorny, R.A. (1995).A procedural guide to cognitive task analysis: The PARI methodology, Tech. Report AL/HR-TR-1995-0108. Brooks Air Force Base, TX: Human Resources Directorate.
Hannafin, M.J., Hall, C., Land, S., & Hill, J. (1994). Learning in open-ended learning environments: Assumptions, methods, and implications.Educational Technology, 34(8), 48–55.
Hayes, J.R., & Simon, H.A. (1977). Psychological differences among problem isomorphs. In N.J. Castellan, D.B. Pisoni, & G.R. Potts (Eds.),Cognitive theory (pp. 21–41). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Heil, M.C. (1999).Air traffic control specialist age and cognitive test performance. FAA Office of Aviation Medicine Report No. DOT-FAA-AM-99-23. Oklahoma City, OK: Federal Aviation Administration.
Heller, L.C. (1982). An exploration of the effect of structure variables on mathematical word problem-solving achievement (Doctoral dissertation, Rutgers University),Dissertation Abstracts International, 44, 416.
Hofer, B.K., & Pintrich, P.R. (1997). The development of epistemological theories: Beliefs about knowledge and knowing and their relation to learning.Review of Educational Research, 67(1), 88–140.
Hong, N.S., Jonassen, D.H., & McGee, S. (in press). Predictors of well-structured and ill-structured problem solving in an astronomy simulation.Journal of Research in Science Teaching.
Jeffries, R., Turner, A.A., Polson, P.G., & Atwood, M.E. (1981). The processes involved in designing software. In J.R. Anderson (Ed.),Cognitive skills and their acquisition (pp. 255–283). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Johnson, S.D. (1988). Cognitive analysis of expert and novice troubleshooting performance.Performance Improvement Quarterly, 1(3), 38–54.
Johnson, S.D., & Satchwell, S.E. (1993). The effect of functional flow diagrams on apprentice aircraft mechanics' technical system understanding.Performance Improvement Quarterly, 6(4), 73–91.
Jonassen, D.H. (1997). Instructional design model for well-structured and ill-structured problem-solving learning outcomes.Educational Technology Research and Development 45(1), 65–95.
Jonassen, D.H. (2000a). Integrating problem solving into instructional design. In R.A. Reiser & J. Dempsey (Eds.),Trends and issues in instructional design and technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Jonassen, D.H. (2000b). Activity theory revisited. In D.H Jonassen & S.L. Land, (Eds.),Theoretical foundations of learning environments. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Jonassen, D.H. (2000c).Using technologies to model student problem spaces. Paper presented at the International Conference on Computers in Education, Taipei, Taiwan.
Jonassen, D.H., Beissner, K., & Yacci, M. (1993).Structural knowledge: Techniques for assessing, conveying, and acquiring structural knowledge. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Jonassen, D.H., & Grabowski, B.L. (1993).Handbook of individual differences, learning and instruction. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Jonassen, D.H., & Henning, P. (1999). Mental models: Knowledge in the head and knowledge in the world.Educational Technology, 39(3), 37–42.
Jonassen, D.H., & Kwon, H.I. (in press). Communication patterns in computer-mediated vs. face-to-face group problem solving.Educational Technology Research and Development.
Jonassen, D.H, & Land, S.L (Eds.). (2000).Theoretical foundations of learning environments. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Jonassen, D., Prevish, T., Christy, D., Stavurlaki, E. (1999). Learning to solve problems on the Web: Aggregate planning in a business management course.Distance Education: An International Journal, 20(1), 49–63.
Jonassen, D.H., & Tessmer, M. (1996/1997). An outcomes-based taxonomy for instructional systems design, evaluation, and research.Training Research Journal, 2, 11–46.
Jonassen, D.H., Tessmer, M., & Hannum, W. (1999).Handbook of task analysis procedures. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Kahney, H. (1993).Problem solving: Current issues. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.
Kerstholt, J.H., & Raaijmakers, J.G.W. (1997). Decision making in dynamic task environments. In R. Ranyard, W.R. Cozier, & Ola Swenson (Eds.),Decision making: Cognitive models and explanations (pp. 205–217). London: Routledge.
Kitchner, K.S. (1983). Cognition, metacognition, and epistemic cognition: A three-level model of cognitive processing.Human Development, 26, 222–232.
Kluwe, R.H. (1995). Single case studies and models of complex problem solving In P.A. Frensch & J. Funke (Eds.),Complex problem solving: The European perspective (pp. 269–291). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Land, S.M., & Hannafin, M.J. (1996). A conceptual framework for the development of theories-inaction with open-ended learning environments.Educational Technology Research & Development, 44(3), 37–53.
Lehman, D., Lempert, R., & Nisbett, R.E. (1988). The effects of graduate training on reasoning: Formal discipline and thinking about everyday-life events.Educational Psychologist, 43, 431–42.
Lester, F.K. (1994). Musings about mathematical problem-solving research: 1970–1994.Journal for Research in Mathematis Education, 25, 660–675.
Lucangelli, D., Tressoldi, P.E., & Cendron, M. (1998). Cognitive and metacognitive abilities involved in the solution of mathematical word problems: Validation of a comprehensive model.Contemporary Educational Psychology, 23, 257–275.
MacKay, E., & O'Neill, P. (1992). What creaes the dilemma in ethical dilemmas? Examples from psychological practice.Ethics & Behavior, 2(4), 227–244.
Maloney, T.J. (1981). The relation between field-independence and rule-transfer (Doctoral dissertation, University of Toledo),Dissertation Abstracts International, 442, 2575.
Marshall, S.P. (1995).Schemas in problem solving. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Masui, C., & DeCorte, E. (1999). Enhancing learning and problem solving skills: Orienting and self-judging, two powerful and trainable learning skills.Learning and Instruction, 9, 517–542.
Mayer, R.E. (1992).Thinking, problem solving, cognition (2nd ed.). New York: Freeman.
Mayer, R.E. (1998). Cognitive. Metacognitive, and motivational aspects of problem solving.Instructional Science, 26, 49–63.
Mayer, R.E., & Wittrock, M.C. (1996). Problem-solving transfer. In D.C. Berlinert & R.C. Calfee (Eds.),Handbook of educational psychology (pp. 47–62). New York: Macmillan.
McCloskey, M., Caramaza, A., & Basili, A. (1985). Cognitive mechanisms in number processing and calculation: Evidence from dyscalculia.Brain and Cognition, 4, 171–196.
Meacham, J.A., Emont, N.C. (1989). The interpersonal basis of everyday problem solving. In J.D. Sinnott (Ed.),Everyday problem solving: Theory and applications (pp. 7–23). New York: Praeger.
Mullen, J.D., & Roth, B.M. (1991).Decision making: Its logic and practice. Savage, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
Newell, A., & Simon, H. (1972).Human problem solving. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Olson, M. (1965).The logic of collective action. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Perkins, D.N., Hancock, C., Hobbs, R., Martin, F., & Simmons, R. (1986). Conditions of learning in novice programmers.Journal of Educational Computing Research, 2(1), 37–56.
Perry, W.G. (1970).The forms of intellectual and ethical development in the college years: A scheme. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Pokorny, R.A., Hall, E.P., Gallaway, M.A., & Dibble, E. (1996). Analyzing components of work samples to evaluate performance.Military Psychology, 8(3), 161–177.
Reed, S.K., Ernsyt, G.W., & Banerji, R. (1974). The role of analogy in transfer between similar problem states.Cognitive Psychology, 6, 436–450.
Reigeluth, C.M. (1983).Instructional design theories and models. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Reitman, W.R. (1965).Cognition and thought. New York: Wiley.
Robertson, W.C. (1990). Detection of cognitive structure with protocol data: Predicting performance on physics transfer problems.Cognitive Science, 14, 253–280.
Ronning, McCurdy, & Ballinger (1984, January). Individual differences: A third component in problem-solving instruction.Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 21(1), 71–82.
Salomon, G., & Perkins, D.N. (1989). Rocky roads to transfer: Rethinking mechanisms of a neglected phenomenon.Educational Psychologist, 24, 113–142.
Schacter, J., Chung, G.K.W.K., & Dorr, A. (1998). Children's Internet searching on complex problems: Performance and process analyses.Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 49, 840–849.
Schank, R.C., Fano, A., Bell, B., & Jona, M. (1993/1994). The design of goal-based scenarios.The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 3(4), 305–345.
Schroeder, D.A. (1995). An introduction to social dilemmas. In D.A. Schroeder (Ed.),Social dilemmas: Perspectives on individuals and groups (pp. 1–14). Westport, CT: Praeger.
Shavelson, R.J. (1972). Some aspects of the correspondence between content structure and cognitive structure in physics instruction.Journal of Educational Psychology, 63, 225–234.
Sherrill, J.M. (1983). Solving textbook mathematical problems.Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 29, 140–152.
Simon, H.A. (1973). The structure of ill-structured problems.Artificial Intelligence, 4, 181–201.
Simon, D.P. (1978). Information processing theory of human problem solving. In D. Estes (Ed.),Handbook of learning and cognitive process. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Singley, M.K., & Anderson, J.R. (1989).The transfer of cognitive skill. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Smith, M.U. (1991). A view from biology. In M.U. Smith (ed.),Toward a unified theory of problem solving. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Smith, P.L., & Ragan, T.J. (1999).Instructional design 2nd ed. Columbus, OH: Merrill.
Sternberg, R.J., & Frensch, P.A. (Eds.). (1991).Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Stewin, L., & Anderson, C. (1974). Cognitive complexity as a determinant of information processing.Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 20(3), 233–243.
Suedfeld, P., de Vries, B., Bluck, S., Wallbaum, B.C. (1996). Intuitive perceptions of decision-making strategy: Naive assessors' concepts of integrative complexity.International Journal of Psychology, 31(5), 177–190.
Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning.Cognitive Science, 12, 257–285.
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1981). The framing of decisions and the psychology of choice.Science, 211, 453–458.
van Merriënboer, J.J.G. (1997).Training complex cognitive skills. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
Voss, J.F., & Post, T.A. (1988). On the solving of ill-structured problems. In M.T.H. Chi, R. Glaser, & M.J. Farr (Eds.),The nature of expertise. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Voss, J.F., Wolfe, C.R., Lawrence, J.A., & Engle, J.A. (1991). From representation to decision: An analysis of problem solving in international relations. In R.J. Sternberg & P.A. Frensch (Eds.),Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms (pp. 119–158). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Wagner, R.K. (1991). Managerial problem solving. In R.J. Sternberg & P.A. Frensch (Eds.),Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms (pp. 159–184). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Williams, S. (1992). Putting case-based instruction into context: Examples for legal and medical education.The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 2(4), 367–427.
Wood, P.K. (1983). Inquiring systems and problem structures: Implications for cognitive development.Human Development, 26, 249–265.
Woods, D.R., Hrymak, A.N., Marshall, R.R., Wood, P.E., Crowe, Hoffman, T.W., Wright, J.D., Taylor, P.A., Woodhouse, K.A., & Bouchard, C.G.K. (1997). Developing problem-solving skills: the McMaster problem solving program.Journal of Engineering Education, 86(2), 75–92.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Additional information
This paper represents an effort to introduce issues and concerns related to problem solving to the instructional design community. I do not presume that the community is ignorant of problem solving or its literature, only that too little effort has been expended by the field in articulating design models for problem solving. There are many reasons for that state of affairs.
The curse of any introductory paper is the lack of depth in the treatment of these issues. To explicate each of the issues raised in this paper would require a book (which is forthcoming), which makes it unpublishable in a journal. My purpose here is to introduce these issues in order to stimulate discussion, research, and development of problem-solving instruction that will help us to articulate better design models.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Jonassen, D.H. Toward a design theory of problem solving. ETR&D 48, 63–85 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02300500
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02300500