article

Free access

RAID: high-performance, reliable secondary storage

Authors:

David A. PattersonAuthors Info & Claims

ACM Computing Surveys (CSUR), Volume 26, Issue 2

Pages 145 - 185

https://doi.org/10.1145/176979.176981

Published: 01 June 1994 Publication History

PDF eReader

Abstract

Disk arrays were proposed in the 1980s as a way to use parallelism between multiple disks to improve aggregate I/O performance. Today they appear in the product lines of most major computer manufacturers. This article gives a comprehensive overview of disk arrays and provides a framework in which to organize current and future work. First, the article introduces disk technology and reviews the driving forces that have popularized disk arrays: performance and reliability. It discusses the two architectural techniques used in disk arrays: striping across multiple disks to improve performance and redundancy to improve reliability. Next, the article describes seven disk array architectures, called RAID (Redundant Arrays of Inexpensive Disks) levels 0–6 and compares their performance, cost, and reliability. It goes on to discuss advanced research and implementation topics such as refining the basic RAID levels to improve performance and designing algorithms to maintain data consistency. Last, the article describes six disk array prototypes of products and discusses future opportunities for research, with an annotated bibliography disk array-related literature.

References

[1]

AMDAHL, G.M. 1967. ValiditK, of the single processor approach to achievin'g large scale computing capabilities. In Proceedtngs of the AFIPS 1967 Sprzng Joint Computer Conference. Vol. 30. AFIPS, Washington, D.C., 483-485. Threepage paper that eloquently gives case for traditional computers by pointing out that performance improvement is limited by portion of the computation that is not improved.

Google Scholar

[2]

BACCELLI, F. 1985. Two parallel queues created by arrivals with two demands. Tech Rep. 426, INRIA, Rocquencourt, France. Derives an exact solution for the two-server, M/G/1 fork-join queue.

Google Scholar

[3]

BHIDE, A. AND DIAS, D. 1992. Raid architectures for OLTP. Tech. Rep. RC 17879 (#78489), IBM, Yorktown Heights, N.Y. Increases throughput for workloads emphasizing small, random write accesses in a redundant disk array by logging changes to parity for efficient application later. Parity changes are logged onto a separate disk which must be externally sorted before application to the disk array's parity.

Google Scholar

[4]

B1TTON, D. AND GRAY, J. 1988. Disk shadowing. In Very Large Database Conference XIV. Morgan Kaufmann, San Mateo, Calif., 331-338. Describes disk mirroring and derives an analytical equation for read and write seek distances as a function of the number of data copies.

Crossref

Google Scholar

[5]

BURKU^RDT, W. AND MENON, J. 1993. Disk array storage system reliability. In the 23rd Annual International Symposium on Fault-Tolerant Computing. IEEE Computer Society, Washington, D.C., 432 441. Argnaes need for multiple error-correcting disk arrays; discusses how to use maximal-distance separable codes to protect against multiple errors in a space-efficient manner.

Google Scholar

[6]

BUZEN, J. AND SHUM, W. C. 1986. I/O architecture in MVS/370 and MVS/XA. CMG Trans. 54 (Fall), 19-26. Overview of the MVS/370 and MVS/XA I/O architecture. Describes channel paths, storage directors, string controllers, rotational position sensing, static and dynamic reconnect.

Google Scholar

[7]

CAO, P., LiM, S. B., VENtCA_TARAMAN, S., AND WILKES, J. 1993. The TickerTAIP parallel RAID architecture. In Proceedings of the 1993 International Symposium on Computer Archttecture. IEEE, New York. Describes the TickerTAIP architecture, software implementation issues, and the performance of different methods of distributing parity computation among multiple processors.

Crossref

Google Scholar

[8]

CHANDY, J. AND REDDY, A. L. N. 1993. Failure evaluation of disk array organizations. In Proceedmgs of the International Conference on Distrtbuted Computing Systems. IEEE Computer Society, Washington, D.C. Contrasts four previously described schemes for minimizing data reconstruction time in small (7 and 16 disks) redundant disk arrays: RAID 5 with a single spare disk, RAID 5 with a single spare whose space is distributed across all disks, a special case of Muntz and Lui's parity-clustering organization, and a method of dynamically converting a redundant data disk to a spare disk by merging two redundancy groups into one larger group. The second, distributed sparing, is generally preferred because of its performance and simplicity, but the Muntz scheme is better for minimal impact of user performance during recovery.

Google Scholar

[9]

CHEN, P. M., GIBSON, G., KATZ, R., AND PATTERSON, D.A. 1990. All evaluation of redundant arrays of disks using an Amdahl 5890. In Proceedings of the 1990 ACM SIGMETRICS Conference on Measurement and Modeling of Computer Systems. ACM, New York. The first experimental evaluation of RAID. Compares RAID levels 0, 1, and 5.

Crossref

Google Scholar

[10]

CHEN~ P. M. AND PATTERSON, D.A. 1990 Max9 mizmg performance m a striped disk array. In Proceedings of the 1990 Internatmnal Sympostum on Computer Archttecture. IEEE, New York, 322-331. Discusses how to choose the striping unit fbr a RAID level-0 disk array.

Crossref

Google Scholar

[11]

C~tEN, S. AND TOWSLE~, D. 1991. A queuemg analysis of RAID architectures. Tech. Rep. COINS Tech. Rep. 91-71, Dept. of Computer and Information Science, Univ of Mas~ sachusetts, Amherst, Mass Analytically models RAID leveI-1 and RAID level-5 disk arrays to compare their performance on small and large requests. Bounds are used to model the quemng and fork-join synchronization in RAID level-1 disk arrays. Small write requests in RAID level-5 disk arrays are handled by ignoring the fork-join synchromzatlon overhead. Large requests are modcled by using a single queue for all the disks m the disk array.

Google Scholar

[12]

CHEN, P. M AND LEE, E.K. 1993 Striping in a RAID level-5 disk array Tech. Rep. CSE-TR- 181-93, Univ. of' Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mtch. Discusses how to choose striping unit for RAID level-5 disk arrays. Quantifies effect of writes and varying number of dmks

Google Scholar

[13]

CHEN, P. M., LEE, E. K., DRAPEAU, A. L., LUTZ, K, MILLER, E. L., SESHAN, S., SHIRR1FF, K., PATTER- SON D. A., ANi~ KATZ, R. H. 1994. Performance and design evaluatmn of the RAID-II storage server. J. D~str~b. Parall. Databases. To be published. Also in The 1993 International Porallel Processing Symposium Workshop on I/0 Ln Parallel Computer System.e Summa rizes major architectural features of RAID-II and evaluates how they impact performance

Crossref

Google Scholar

[14]

CHE~VENAK, A. L. AND KATZ, R.H. 1991 Performance of a disk array prototype In Proceedrags of the 1991 ACM SIGMETRICS Conference on Measurement and Modeling of Corn puter Systems Perf. Eval. Rev. 19, 5 (May), 188 197 Evaluates the performance of RAID-I, a U C. Berkeley disk array prototype.

Crossref

Google Scholar

[15]

COPELAND, G., ALEXANDER, W., BOUGHTER, E, AND KELLER, T. 1988 Data placement in Bubba In Proceedings of the ACM SIGMOD International Con{erence on Management o/ Data ACM, New York, 99-108. Discusses data allocation in a large database.

Crossref

Google Scholar

[16]

DRAPEAU, A. L., SHIRRIFE, K., LEE, E. K, CHEN, P. M, GIBSON, G A., HARTMAN, J. H. MILLER, E. L., SESHAN, S., KATZ, R. H, LUTZ, K, AND PATTERSON, D. A 1994. RAID-II: A highbandwidth network file server In Proceedings of the 1994 Internatmnal Swnposlum on Computer Archttecture. IEEE, New York. Describes the architecture, file system, and performance of RAID-II, a disk array file server prototype.

Crossref

Google Scholar

[17]

EMLICH, L. W. AND POLICH, H.D. 1989 VAXmm- PLUS, a fault manager mlplementatmn Dig. Tech. J. 8, (Feb.) Describes Digatal Equipment Corporation's tool for predicting and awfiding disk failures

Google Scholar

[18]

FLATTO, L. ~D HAHN, S. 1984. Two parallel queues created by arrivals with two demands I}. SIAM J. Comput. 44, 5 (Oct.), 1041-1053, Derives an exact solutmn for the two-server, M/M/l, fork-join queue.

Google Scholar

[19]

FRmDMAN, M. B 1983. DASD access patterns. In the 14th International Conference on Managemeat ond Performance Evaluatmn of Computer Systems Computer Measurement Group, 51 61 Looks at how much disk accesses are skewed toward particular disks in several transaction-processing sites.

Google Scholar

[20]

GIBSON, G.A. 1992. Redundant disk arrays Rehable, parallel secondary storage Ph.D. thesis, Univ of California. Berkeley, Calif. Also available fi'om MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. Award-winning dissertation that describes RAIDs m detail, with emphasm on rehability analysis of several alternatives.

Crossref

Google Scholar

[21]

GIBSON, G. A., PATTERSON, R. H., AND SATYA- NARAYANAN, M. 1992. D~sk reads with DRAM latency In the 3rd Workshop on Workstatwn Operating Systems. IEEE Computer Society, Washing-ton, D.C. Proposes that apphcatmns give hints about their future file accesses so that the buffer cache can prefetch needed data and provide low-latency file access. The hints could be exploited also to improve cache management and dmk scheduling

Google Scholar

[22]

GRAY, J., HOgST, B, ANn WALKER, M. 1990. Parlty striping of disc arrays: Low-cost rehable storage with acceptable throughput In Procecdzngs o/the 16th Very Large Database Conference. Morgan Kaufmann. San Mateo, Calif, 148-160. Describes a data and parity layout for disk arrays called parity striping. Panty striping is essentially RAID level 5 with an infinite striping umt and manual load balancing.

Crossref

Google Scholar

[23]

HALL, M 1986. Combinatorial Theory. 2nd ed. Wlley-Interscience, New York. Textbook on combinatorial theory. The section on balanced, incomplete block designs are most relevant for readers of thin article

Crossref

Google Scholar

[24]

HEII)ELBERGER, P AND TRIVEDI, K.S. 1982. Qeuelag network models for parallel processing with asynchronous tasks. IEEE Trans Comput C- 3 l, 11 (Nov.), 1099-1109. Derives approximate solutions for queuing systems with forks but no joins.

Google Scholar

[25]

HENNESSY, J. L. AND PATTERSON, D. A. 1990. Computer Architecture' A Quantttatme Approach. Morgan Kaufmann, San Mateo, Calif. Likely the most popular general book in computer architecture today, the discussion on technology trends, general I/O issues, and measurements of seek dmtances are most relevant to readers of this article

Crossref

Google Scholar

[26]

HOLLAND, M., AND GIBSON, G. 1992. Parity declustermg for continuous operatmn in redundant disk arrays. In Proceedmgs of the 5th International Conference on Architectural Support for Programming Languages and Operating Systems (ASPLOS-V). IEEE, New York, 23-35. Describes parity declustering, a techmque fbr improving the performance of a redundant disk array in the presence of disk failure. Analyzes the proposed solution using detailed simulation and finds significant improvements (20-50%) in both user response time and reconstruction time. Also analyzes a set of previously-proposed optimizations that can be applied to the reconstruction algorithm, concluding that they can actually slow the reconstruction process under certain conditions.

Crossref

Google Scholar

[27]

HOLLAND, M. GmsoN, G., AND SIEWlOREK, D. 1993 Fast, on-line failure recovery in redundant disk arrays. In Proceedings of the 23rd International Symposium on Fault Tolerant Computing IEEE Computer Society, Washington, D,C. ompares and contrasts two data reconstruction algorithms for disk arrays: "parallel stripe-oriented reconstruction" and "disk-oriented reconstruction." Presents an implementation of the disk-oriented algorithm and analyzes reconstruction performance of these algorithms, concluding that the disk-oriented algorithm is superior. Investigates the sensitivity of the reconstruction process to the size of the reconstruction umt and the amount of memory available for reconstruction.

Google Scholar

[28]

HSIAO, H. AND DEWITT, D. 1990. Chained declustering: A new availability strategy for multiprocessor database machines. In Proceedings of the 1990 IEEE Internattonal Conference on Data Engineering. IEEE, New York, 456-465. Introduces a variation of mirroring, where the secondary copy of data is distributed across the disks in a different manner than the primary copy of data.

Crossref

Google Scholar

[29]

KATZ, R.H. 1992. High perfbrmance networkand channel-based storage. Proc. IEEE 80, 8 (Aug.), 1238 1261. Presents overview of network-based storage systems. Reviews hardware and software trends in storage systems.

Google Scholar

[30]

KATZ, R. H., CHEN, P. M., DRAPEAU, A. L., LF.E, E. K., LUTZ, K., MILLER, E. L., SESHAN, S., PATTERSON, D.A. 1993. RAID-Ih Design and implementation of a large scale disk array controller. In the 1993 Symposium on Integrated Systems. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. Describes the design decisions and implementation experiences from RAID-IL

Crossref

Google Scholar

[31]

KIM, M.Y. 1986 Synchronized disk interleaving. IEEE Trans. Comput. C-35, 11 (Nov.), 978 988. Simulates the performance of independent disks versus synchronized disk striping. Derives an equation for response time by treating the synchronized disk array as an M/G/1 queuing system.

Crossref

Google Scholar

[32]

KiM, M. Y. AND TANTAWI, A. N. 1991. Asynchronous disk interleaving: Approximating access delays. IEEE Trans. Comput. 40, 7 (July), 801-810. Derives an approximate equation for access time in unsynchronized disk arrays when seek times are exponentially distributed and rotational latency is uniformly distributed.

Crossref

Google Scholar

[33]

KORNER, K. 1990. Intelligent caching for remote file service. In Proceedings of the Internatmnal Conference on Distributed Computing Systems. IEEE Computer Society, Washington, D.C., 220 226. Uses traces to generate hints based on the program running and the directory and name of files accessed. The file server uses the hints to pick a caching algorithm: LRU, MRU, none. Simulation showed significant benefits from intelligent caching but not from readahead which delayed demand requests since it was not preemptable.

Google Scholar

[34]

KOTZ, D. AND ELLIS, C. S. 1991. Practical prefetching techniques for parallel file systems. In Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Parallel and Distributed Informatmn Systems. ACM, New York, 182-189. File access predictors use past accesses to prefetch data in idle nodes of a parallel file system Simulation studies show that practical predictors often can significantly reduce total execution time while the penalty for incorrect predictions is modest.

Crossref

Google Scholar

[35]

LEE, E. K. AND KATZ, R. H. 1991a An analytic performance model of disk arrays and its applications. Tech. Rep. UCB/CSD 91/660, Univ. of California, Berkeley, Calif Derives an analytic model for nonredundant disk arrays and uses the model to derive an equation for the optimal size of data striping.

Crossref

Google Scholar

[36]

L~:E, E. K. AND KATZ, R.H. 1991b. Performance consequences of parity placement in disk arrays. In Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Architectural Support for Programming Languages and Operating Systems {ASPLOS-IV). IEEE, New York, 190 199. Investigates the performance of different methods of distributing parity in RAID level-5 disk arrays.

Crossref

Google Scholar

[37]

L~m, E. K. AND KATZ, R. H. 1993. An analytic performance model of disk arrays. In Proceedings of th 1993 ACM SIGMET~IICS Conference on Measurement and Modehng of Computer Systems. ACM, New York, 98 109. Similar to earlier technical report with similar name except with better empirical justifications and a more detailed study of the model's properties.

Crossref

Google Scholar

[38]

LIvNY, M. KHOSHAFIAN, S., AND BORAL, H. 1987 Multi-disk management algorithms. In Proceedings of the 1987 ACM SIGMETRICS Conference On Measurement and Modeling of Computer System. ACM, New York, 69-77. Compares performance of disk arrays with track-sized and infinite striping units. Concludes that striping can improve performance for many multidisk systems.

Crossref

Google Scholar

[39]

LOVERSO, S. J., ISMAN, M., AND NANOPOULOS, A. 1993. A Parallel file system for the CM-5. In Proceedings of the USENIX Summer Con/krence. USENIX Assoclatmn, Berkeley, Calif. A description of the I/O hardware and the file system of the massively parallel processor from Thinking Machines. Their RAID-3 disk array has excellent performance for large file accesses.

Google Scholar

[40]

MALHOTRA, M. AND TRIVEDI, S. 1993. Rehabihty analysis of redundant arrays of inexpensive disks. J. Parall. D~str. Comput. 17, (Jan.), 146-151 Uses Marker models to derive exact, closed-form reliability equations for redundant disk arrays. Analysis accounts for failure prediction and sparing.

Crossref

Google Scholar

[41]

MENON, J. AND CORTNEY, J. 1993. The architecture of a fault-tolerant cached RAID controller In Procee&ngs of the 20th Internatl, onal Symposium on Computer Architecture IEEE, New York, 76-86. Describes the architecture of Hagar and several algorithms for asynchronous writes that reduce susceptlbfilty to data loss.

Crossref

Google Scholar

[42]

MENON, J., MATTSON, D., AND NO, S. 1991. Distributed sparing for improved performance of disk arrays. Tech Rep. RJ 7943, IBM, Almaden Research Center. Explores the use of an on-line spare disk in a redundant disk array analytically It examines multiple configurations, but fundamentally it distributes the spare's space over the whole array so that every disk is N/(N + 2) data, 1/(N + 2) parity, and 1/(N + 2) spare. This gives an extra 1/(N + 2) performance, but, more significantly, it distributes the recovery-write load (the reconstructed data) over all disks to shorten recovery time. The benefits, not surprisingly, are largest for small arrays.

Google Scholar

[43]

MENON, J., ROCHE, J., AND iKASSON, J. 1993 Floating parity and data disk arrays. J. Parall. Dlstrib. Comput. 17, 129-139, Introduces floating data and floating parity as an optimization for RAID level-5 disk arrays. Discusses performance and capacity overheads of methods.

Crossref

Google Scholar

[44]

MERCHANT, A. AND Yu, P. 1992. Design and modeling of clustered RAID. In Proceedings of the International Symposium on Fault Tolerant Computing. IEEE Computer Society, Washington, D.C., 140 149. Presents an implementation of parity declustering, which the authors call "clustered RAID," based on random permutations. Its advantage is that it ~s able to derive a data mapping for any size disk array with any size parity stripe, and the corresponding disadvantage is that the computational requirements of the mapping algorithm are high compared to the block-design-based approaches. Analyzes response time and reconstruction time using this technique via an analytic model, and finds substantial benefits m bath.

Google Scholar

[45]

MONTGOMERY SECURITIES 1991. RAID: A technology prosed for explosive growth. Tech. Rep. DJIA: 2902, Montgomery Securities, San Franmsco, Calif. Industry projections of market growth for RAID systems from 1990 to 1995.

Google Scholar

[46]

MUNTZ, R. R. AND LUI, C. S. 1990. Performance analysis of disk arrays under fadure. In Proceedings of the 16th Conference on Very Large Data Bases. Morgan Kaufmann, San Mateo, Calif. Proposes and evaluates the "clustered- RAID" technique for improving the fmlure-re covery performance in redundant disk arrays. It leaves open the problem of implementation: no techmque for efficiently mapping data units to physical disks is presented. Analyzes via an analytmal model the technique and two potential "optimlzatmns" to the reconstruction algorithm, and finds significant benefits to all three.

Crossref

Google Scholar

[47]

NELSON, R. AND TANTAWI, A. N. 1988. Approximate analysis of fork/join synchronization in parallel queues. IEEE Trans. Comput. 37, 6 ( June), 739 743 Approximates response time in fork-join queuing systems with k >- 2 servers where each logical request always forks into k requests.

Crossref

Google Scholar

[48]

NO, S. 1994. Crossbar disk array for unproved rehability and performance In Proceedings the 1994 Internatwnal Symposium on Computer Archztecture. IEEE, New York. Introduces schemes to protect against multiple failures of disk support hardware such as disk controllers and strings.

Crossref

Google Scholar

[49]

NG, S AND MATTSON, D. 1991 Maintaining good performance in disk arrays during failure via uniform parity group distribution. In Proceed-,~gs of t}le 1st Internatmnal Symposium on High Performance Distrzbuted Computing. 260 269 Uses balanced, incomplete block designs to distribute the extra load from a failed disk equally among other disks in the array.

Google Scholar

[50]

Open, C. U. AND SOLWORTH, J. A. 1993~ Doubly distorted mirrors. In Procee&ngs of the ACM SIGMOD International Conference on Management of Data. ACM, New York. Describes a technique called &storted mirrors that partitions each of two mirrored disks into two halves, one of which lays out the data in a standard fashion, one of which "distorts" the data layout. This accelerates writes to the distorted copy while preserwng the abihty to read large files sequentmlly.

Crossref

Google Scholar

[51]

PATTERSON, D. A. AND HENNESSY, J L. 1994. Computer Organization and Design: The Hardware/So/?ware Interface. Morgan Kaufmann, San Mateo, Cahf. A popular undergraduate book in computer architecture, the discussion on technology trends are most relevant to readers of this article.

Crossref

Google Scholar

[52]

PATTERSON, D. A., GIBSON, G., AND KATZ, R. H. 1988. A case for redundant arrays ofinexpenrove disks (RAID) In Internaaonal Conference on Management of Data ( SIGMOD I. ACM, New York, 109-116. The first published Berkeley paper on RAIDs, ~t gives all the RAID nomenclature.

Crossref

Google Scholar

[53]

PATTERSON, R. H., GIBSON, G. A., AND SATYA- NARAYANAN, M. 1993. A status report on research in transparent informed prefetching. ACM Oper. Syst. Rev. 27, 2 (Apr.), 21-34. Expands on using application hints for file prefetching in Gibson et al. { 1992}. Hints should disclose access patterns, not advise caching/ prefetching actions. Greatest potential from converting serial accesses into concurrent accesses on a disk array. Presents preliminary results of user-level prefetching tests.

Crossref

Google Scholar

[54]

PETERSON, E. W. AND WELDON, E. J. 1972. Error-Correcting Codes. 2nd ed. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. A general textbook on the mathematics of error-correcting codes.

Google Scholar

[55]

ROSENBLUM, M. AND OUSTERHOUT, J.K. 1991. The design and implementation of a log-structured file system, in Proceedtngs of the 13th ACI}4 Symposium on Operating Systems Principles. ACM, New York. Describes a log-structured file system that makes all writes to disk sequential. Discusses efficient ways to clean the disk to prevent excessive fragmentation.

Crossref

Google Scholar

[56]

SALEM, K. AND GARCIA-MOLINA, H. 1986. Disk striping. In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Data Engineering'. IEEE Computer Society, Washington, D.C., 336-342. Early paper discussing disk striping.

Crossref

Google Scholar

[57]

SCHEUERMANN, P., WEIKUM, G., AND ZABBACK, P. 1991. Automatic tuning of data placement and load balancing in disk arrays. Database Systems for Next-Generation Applications: Principles and Practme. Describes heuristics for allocating files to disks to minimize disk skew.

Google Scholar

[58]

SCHULZE, M., GIBSON, G. KATZ, R., AND PATTERSON, D. 1989. How reliable is a RAID, In Procedures of the IEEE Computer Society International Conference (COMPCON). IEEE, New York. Gives a reliability calculation for the electronics as well as the disks for RAIDS.

Google Scholar

[59]

SELTZER, M. I., CHEN, P. M., AND OUSTERHOUT, J. K. 1990. Disk scheduling revisited. In Proceedings of the Winter 1990 USENIX Technical Conference. USENIX Association, Berkeley, Calif. 313-324. Reexamines the problem of how to efficiently schedule a large number of disk accesses when accounting for both seek and rotational positioning delays.

Google Scholar

[60]

STODOLSKY, D. AND GIBSON, G. A. 1993. Parity logging: Overcoming the small write problem in redundant disk arrays. In Proceedings of the 1993 International Symposium on Computer Architecture. Increases throughput for workloads emphasizing small, random write accesses in a redundant disk array by logging changes to the parity in a segmented log for efficient application later. Log segmentation allows log operations that are large enough to be efficient yet small enough to allow in-memory application of a log segment.

Crossref

Google Scholar

[61]

TAIT, C. D. AND DUCHAMP, D. 1991. Detection and exploitation of file working sets. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Distributed Computing Systems. IEEE Computer Society, Washington, D.C., 2 9. Dynamically builds and maintains program and data access trees to predict future file accesses. The current pattern is matched with previous trees to prefetch data and manage the local cache in a distributed file system. Trace-driven simulation shows reduced cache miss rates over a simple LRU algorithm.

Google Scholar

[62]

WEIKUM, G. AND ZABBACK, P. 1992. Tuning of striping units in disk-array-based file systems. In Proceedings of the 2nd Internatzonal Workshop on Research Issues on Data Engineering: Transaction and Query Processing. IEEE Computer Society, Washington, D.C., 80 87. Proposes file-specific striping units instead of a single, global one for all files.

Google Scholar

[63]

WILMOT, R. B. 1989. File usage patterns from SMF data: Highly skewed usage. In the 20th Internatwnal Conference on Management and Performance Evaluation of Computer Systems. Computer Measurement Group, 668-677. Reports on how files are accessed on four large data centers and finds that a small number of files account for most of all disk I/O.

Google Scholar

Cited By

View all

Noor JUpoma RSakif MIslam A(2025)Towards benchmarking erasure coding schemes in object storage system: A systematic reviewFuture Generation Computer Systems10.1016/j.future.2024.107522163(107522)Online publication date: Feb-2025
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.future.2024.107522
Thomasian A(2024)Storage Systems: Organization, Performance, Coding, Reliability, and Their Data Processing, 1st Edition, October 13, 2021, Author: Alexander ThomasianACM SIGKDD Explorations Newsletter10.1145/3655103.365510725:2(22-24)Online publication date: 26-Mar-2024
https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3655103.3655107
Horton PThompson CGroppi CSeo YSiles J(2024)On-board science data quality analysis using anomaly detection for ASTHROSMillimeter, Submillimeter, and Far-Infrared Detectors and Instrumentation for Astronomy XII10.1117/12.3017661(79)Online publication date: 16-Aug-2024
https://doi.org/10.1117/12.3017661
Show More Cited By

Index Terms

RAID: high-performance, reliable secondary storage
1. Hardware

Recommendations

On Variable Scope of Parity Protection in Disk Arrays

In a common form of a RAID 5 architecture, data is organized on a disk array consisting of N + 1 disks into stripes of N data blocks and one parity block (with parity block locations staggered so as to balance the number of parity blocks on each disk). ...
Higher reliability redundant disk arrays: Organization, operation, and coding

Parity is a popular form of data protection in redundant arrays of inexpensive/independent disks (RAID). RAID5 dedicates one out of N disks to parity to mask single disk failures, that is, the contents of a block on a failed disk can be reconstructed by ...
Double Parity Sparing for Improvement of Performance and Reliability in Disk Arrays
ISPAN '96: Proceedings of the 1996 International Symposium on Parallel Architectures, Algorithms and Networks

RAID level 5 disk arrays provide reliable, cost-effective secondary storage with high performance. Sparing schems have been proposed to improve the reliability and the performance of RAID 5 disk arrays. In this paper, we a new sparing technique, double ...

Reviews

Reviewer: Antonio Puliafito

To improve the performance and reliability of mass storage units, I/O subsystems based on sets of physically distinct but logically interconnected units (disk array systems) have been proposed to extend the cost, power, and space advantages of small disks to higher-capacity configurations. This paper provides a systematic tutorial and survey of disk array technology. Seven different redundant array of inexpensive disks (RAID) organizations are carefully described, and their reliability, performance, and cost are analyzed and compared. Practical issues are also covered, and an interesting description of six disk array prototypes is provided. The material is self-contained and, even if a lot of information is provided, the paper can be read with no more than the usual effort. The annotated bibliography is by itself a valuable contribution. Moreover, for each topic discussed in the paper, an in-depth analysis of the current literature allows the reader to better understand the problem and the solution adopted. The description of some prototypes and products from different companies and research labs, although concise and thus sometimes difficult to follow, constitutes a state-of-the-art analysis that is useful for system designers as well as for researchers into disk arrays. The paper covers many topics, from the general principles governing the design and configuration of disk arrays to the practical issues that must be addressed in the implementation of disk arrays. The clarity with which each topic is analyzed makes the paper of value to anyone interested in disk arrays.

Access critical reviews of Computing literature here

Become a reviewer for Computing Reviews.

Comments

Please enable JavaScript to view thecomments powered by Disqus.

Information & Contributors

Information

Published In

ACM Computing Surveys Volume 26, Issue 2

June 1994

61 pages

ISSN:0360-0300

EISSN:1557-7341

DOI:10.1145/176979

Issue’s Table of Contents

Publisher

Association for Computing Machinery

New York, NY, United States

Publication History

Published: 01 June 1994

Published in CSUR Volume 26, Issue 2

Permissions

Request permissions for this article.

Request Permissions

Check for updates

Author Tags

Qualifiers

Article

Contributors

Other Metrics

View Article Metrics

Bibliometrics & Citations

Bibliometrics

Article Metrics

929
Total Citations
View Citations
13,185
Total Downloads

Downloads (Last 12 months)1,702
Downloads (Last 6 weeks)197

Reflects downloads up to 12 Dec 2024

Other Metrics

View Author Metrics

Citations

Cited By

View all

Noor JUpoma RSakif MIslam A(2025)Towards benchmarking erasure coding schemes in object storage system: A systematic reviewFuture Generation Computer Systems10.1016/j.future.2024.107522163(107522)Online publication date: Feb-2025
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.future.2024.107522
Thomasian A(2024)Storage Systems: Organization, Performance, Coding, Reliability, and Their Data Processing, 1st Edition, October 13, 2021, Author: Alexander ThomasianACM SIGKDD Explorations Newsletter10.1145/3655103.365510725:2(22-24)Online publication date: 26-Mar-2024
https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3655103.3655107
Horton PThompson CGroppi CSeo YSiles J(2024)On-board science data quality analysis using anomaly detection for ASTHROSMillimeter, Submillimeter, and Far-Infrared Detectors and Instrumentation for Astronomy XII10.1117/12.3017661(79)Online publication date: 16-Aug-2024
https://doi.org/10.1117/12.3017661
Karimi MSalkhordeh RBrinkmann AAsadi H(2024)HybRAID: A High-Performance Hybrid RAID Storage Architecture for Write-Intensive Applications in All-Flash Storage SystemsIEEE Transactions on Parallel and Distributed Systems10.1109/TPDS.2024.342933635:12(2608-2623)Online publication date: Dec-2024
https://doi.org/10.1109/TPDS.2024.3429336
Fang WLv JChen BXia SChen X(2024)New Constructions of MDS Array Codes and Optimal Locally Repairable Array CodesIEEE Transactions on Information Theory10.1109/TIT.2024.335311170:3(1806-1822)Online publication date: Mar-2024
https://doi.org/10.1109/TIT.2024.3353111
Zubair KAbdullah RMohaisen DAwad A(2024)RC-NVM: Recovery-Aware Reliability-Security Co-Design for Non-Volatile MemoriesIEEE Transactions on Dependable and Secure Computing10.1109/TDSC.2023.327903121:4(1817-1830)Online publication date: 1-Jul-2024
https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1109/TDSC.2023.3279031
Sheldon JZhu WAbdullah ABhupathiraju SSugawara TButler KIslam MRampazzi S(2024)AquaSonic: Acoustic Manipulation of Underwater Data Center Operations and Resource Management2024 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP)10.1109/SP54263.2024.00201(331-349)Online publication date: 19-May-2024
https://doi.org/10.1109/SP54263.2024.00201
Snopok ELevina ASklavos N(2024)On the Efficiency of Adding Redundancy in Disk Arrays, using Nonlinear Codes2024 13th International Conference on Modern Circuits and Systems Technologies (MOCAST)10.1109/MOCAST61810.2024.10615648(1-4)Online publication date: 26-Jun-2024
https://doi.org/10.1109/MOCAST61810.2024.10615648
Zhao QShu LLi KFerrag MLiu XLi Y(2024)Security and Privacy in Solar Insecticidal Lamps Internet of Things: Requirements and ChallengesIEEE/CAA Journal of Automatica Sinica10.1109/JAS.2023.12387011:1(58-73)Online publication date: Jan-2024
https://doi.org/10.1109/JAS.2023.123870
Pakana FSohrabi NDong HTari ZMoustafa N(2024)ERT: Data Placement based on Estimated Response Time for P2P Storage SystemsJournal of Parallel and Distributed Computing10.1016/j.jpdc.2024.105022(105022)Online publication date: Dec-2024
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpdc.2024.105022
Show More Cited By

View Options

View options

PDF

View or Download as a PDF file.

PDF

eReader

View online with eReader.

eReader

Login options

Check if you have access through your login credentials or your institution to get full access on this article.

Abstract

References

Cited By

Index Terms

Recommendations

On Variable Scope of Parity Protection in Disk Arrays

Higher reliability redundant disk arrays: Organization, operation, and coding

Double Parity Sparing for Improvement of Performance and Reliability in Disk Arrays

Reviews

Access critical reviews of Computing literature here

Comments

Information

Published In

Publisher

Publication History

Permissions

Check for updates

Author Tags

Qualifiers

Contributors

Other Metrics

Bibliometrics

Article Metrics

Other Metrics

Citations

Cited By

View options

PDF

eReader

Login options

Full Access

Figures

Other

Share

Share this Publication link

Share on social media

Affiliations