The COVID-19 Pandemic and Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) Among Immigrant Women in Canada: A Narrative Review
School of Nursing, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1H 8M5, Canada
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Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Women 2024, 4(4), 480-502; https://doi.org/10.3390/women4040036
Submission received: 14 April 2024
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Revised: 18 November 2024
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Accepted: 19 November 2024
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Published: 21 November 2024
Abstract
:Introduction: The COVID-19 pandemic brought myriad challenges and disruptions to societies worldwide. The impact of the pandemic on immigrant women living in Canada and who experience intimate partner violence (IPV) was very concerning during lockdowns specifically. As Canada implemented social distancing measures and stay-at-home orders to curb the spread of the virus, immigrant women—already at a heightened risk of IPV due to factors such as language barriers and immigration status—faced an increased likelihood of being trapped in abusive situations, with limited access to essential support services such as shelters, counseling centers, and legal aid. This narrative review aims to illuminate the experiences of IPV including the challenges and strategies used to cope during the pandemic among immigrant women. While this narrative review aims to obtain an extensive understanding of the IPV experiences among immigrant women during the pandemic, it also highlights the need for developing culturally sensitive interventions to address IPV challenges for immigrant women in similar contexts. A search was undertaken of multiple databases: Medline, CINHAL, Google Scholar, and PsycINFO. To identify studies related to IPV and COVID-19, various search terms were used including “abused women”, “COVID-19”, and “IPV” and their synonyms. This review employs the social–ecological model and intersectionality to illuminate the IPV experiences of immigrant women during the COVID-19 pandemic. Four themes emerged from this study including the realities of COVID-19 restrictions; IPV vulnerabilities during the COVID-19 pandemic; the impacts of IPV and the COVID-19 pandemic; and the strategies for addressing IPV (women and system perspectives). We draw on past research and the knowledge of our multidisciplinary team of researchers to recommend culturally sensitive resources and health services for abused women living in Canada as well as highlight effective intervention strategies to address the varied and complex needs of these women.
1. Overview
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) was first detected in December 2019 by health authorities in Wuhan City in the People’s Republic of China. Since that time, the virus has spread across the globe, causing huge numbers of hospitalizations and deaths. COVID-19 is a disease caused by a virus called SARS-CoV-2 that can spread rapidly and is highly contagious [1]. The rapid spread of the disease created a global emergency and led the World Health Organization (WHO) to declare COVID-19 a pandemic. A pandemic is caused by an infectious and contiguous disease that can infect people easily and spread from person to person in an efficient, quick, and sustained way. Numerous studies have verified that at the height of the COVID-19 pandemic (2020–2022), there was a significant increase in the incidence of intimate partner violence (IPV) against women, with reports of rates doubling or even tripling across various nations [2,3].
IPV refers to the abuse or aggression that occurs in a romantic relationship by current or former spouses or dating partners [4]. Immigrant women experienced the pandemic differently from other populations because of the way it intersected with various associated risk factors of IPV, increasing the complexity of this experience. To develop culturally sensitive interventions, this complexity of experiences among immigrant women who may become trapped in an abusive situation must be recognized [5]. The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated numerous challenges faced by immigrant women in Canada, particularly those related to their unique socioeconomic and cultural contexts. For example, undocumented immigrant women faced heightened vulnerabilities due to their legal status. Without legal protection, they were less likely to seek help and access healthcare, social services, or financial aid during the early stage of the pandemic. Further, the closed nature of some immigrant communities is important to acknowledge. Some immigrant women are tightly engaged in their communities and heavily rely on their family or community members for assistance. However, due to the impact of COVID-19 isolation precautions on these connections, it was extremely difficult for such women to navigate IPV issues. Another layer of complexities for immigrant women’s experience of IPV is the stigma that is associated with seeking help for marital or family issues outside the community. This stigma could have prevented immigrant women from accessing support services, legal help, or shelters, which left them vulnerable to IPV and other forms of abuse during lockdowns. Also, language barriers can significantly hinder immigrant women’s ability to seek help or access information about available services. During the height of the pandemic, crucial updates about health guidelines, financial aid, and support services were often disseminated in the dominant language, leaving non-native speakers at a disadvantage. Furthermore, job losses and reduced working hours heightened financial instability, making it challenging for these women to support their families and meet basic needs. This economic stress can exacerbate other vulnerabilities, such as housing insecurity and limited access to healthcare. By integrating these contextual complexities, we can better understand the multifaceted challenges faced by immigrant women living in Canada during the COVID-19 pandemic.
In mid-March 2020, governments worldwide enforced lockdowns to contain the coronavirus, leading to the closure of schools, parks, organizations, malls, and workplaces. This situation forced IPV survivors and abusers to remain at home, eliminating the possibility for the former to seek a safe space, even temporarily, such as at work. These restrictions increased the risks associated with IPV against immigrant women. The inability to leave the house even for a temporary period was very dangerous for this vulnerable group, and it was a reason for provoking IPV [6]. Financial strains, job losses, and uncertainty about the future due to the lockdown heightened stress levels within households. These stressors can escalate conflicts and trigger abusive behaviors. Researchers and international organizations (e.g., WHO and Health Canada) claimed that lockdown policies and procedures would increase IPV [7,8]. This argument is grounded in research highlighting that IPV tends to increase in prevalence and intensity during catastrophes and disasters [9,10,11]. For example, gender-based violence in West Africa vastly increased during the Ebola outbreak between 2013 and 2015 [12]. Many other studies show how IPV increased after disasters, such as the Loma Prieta earthquake in 1989 [13], Missouri floods in 1993 [14], Miami’s Hurricane Andrew [15], and The Deepwater Horizon oil spill [16]. Studies also confirm that IPV increases significantly during economic downturns, which was confirmed during COVID-19 [17]. It has been stated that rapid rises in the unemployment rates coincided with increases in men’s controlling behavior toward their female partners specifically [18].
The COVID-19 pandemic further stimulated social crimes such as IPV [19,20]. The pandemic seriously affected women by exacerbating pre-existing gender abuse, increasing vulnerabilities, and widening inequalities. For example, the stressors of the pandemic, such as financial strain and uncertainty, exacerbated existing abusive dynamics. The pandemic also widened existing gender gaps in education, employment, and healthcare. Disruptions to education disproportionately affected girls, while job losses and economic instability disproportionately impacted women [6]. These disparities can deepen existing inequalities and increase women’s vulnerability to abuse and exploitation. While it is not possible to have a complete understanding of the effects of the pandemic on IPV occurrence and severity until the pandemic period fully ends, extensive research-based evidence has already confirmed the aggravating influences of the pandemic on IPV [21,22,23,24]. As such, a narrative review is needed to analyze the IPV research during this period to understand this experience fully. This narrative review specifically considers the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and its quarantine procedures among immigrant women who experienced IPV before and during the pandemic.
To advance the current understanding of the critical intersection between IPV and the COVID-19 pandemic among immigrant women, this narrative review will appraise the relevant recent literature on this topic. The objective of this project is to assess the intersection of IPV and the COVID-19 pandemic and their impact on these women.
The specific objectives include the following:
- Examine the issues influencing IPV during the COVID-19 pandemic among immigrant women;
- Assess the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on IPV among immigrant women;
- Obtain strategies for addressing IPV among immigrant women during the COVID-19 pandemic.
This review intends to thoroughly appraise the existing literature using a social–ecological model to illuminate the various levels and intersections of issues influencing the problem of IPV. This will offer valuable insights and practical implications to address this problem. A narrative review is an extensive and qualitative examination of the literature on a specific topic that involves summarizing, interpreting, and synthesizing evidence from various sources to provide a comprehensive overview without adherence to systematic methodologies or strict inclusion criteria. This narrative review avoids overly theoretical discussions and instead emphasizes real-world applications. This study adopts a narrative review to develop a deep, comprehensive understanding of IPV during the COVID-19 pandemic. This narrative review will help identify gaps in the IPV literature and areas that require further investigation. The social–ecological model (SEM) is also used in this study to understand the various levels of influence that shape IPV experiences. The SEM recognizes that individual behavior is influenced by factors at multiple levels, ranging from the individual level to the broader societal and cultural contexts. When applied to IPV, the SEM helps in examining the complex interplay of factors that contribute to its occurrence and perpetuation. The SEM provides a comprehensive framework for understanding how these IPV factors interact and influence each other, contributing to a more holistic approach to the prevention of and intervention against IPV. This model underscores the importance of addressing IPV at multiple levels to create effective and sustainable interventions.
1.1. Significance of This Study
The significance of this study lies in its potential to contribute valuable insights and understanding to the intersection of the COVID-19 pandemic, IPV, and the specific context of immigrant women in Canada. This study specifically targets immigrant women in Canada, recognizing that they may face distinct challenges related to language barriers, cultural differences, and immigration status, which may have intersected with the COVID-19 pandemic. This focus acknowledges the importance of considering diverse experiences within the broader context of IPV. Illuminating these women’s experiences will help stakeholders, policymakers, and healthcare providers to appreciate the different factors that increase these women’s vulnerabilities to IPV. Consequently, they will be better equipped to implement appropriate culturally sensitive interventions to address these issues.
1.2. The Social–Ecological Model and Intersectionality
The social–ecological model (SEM) [25] and intersectionality [26] can help in explaining the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on IPV among immigrant women at various levels. This approach can enhance our understanding of the risk factors associated with IPV, which can be influenced by factors at various socio-ecological levels, because the SEM allows for the examination of multiple levels of influence on this complex social issue. The SEM appreciates the multiple and overlapping factors that contribute to IPV and considers that it cannot be explained merely by addressing the individual associated factors. Considering IPV risk factors solely on an individual level can marginalize the immigrant women who experience IPV by interpreting their unique characteristics as the primary cause of their IPV [6]. The SEM goes beyond this narrow focus and reflects a broader range of factors that contribute to IPV. It acknowledges that individual factors do not exist in isolation but are influenced by various factors in their surroundings. Within this larger context, the SEM considers other factors such as relationships and social norms [12]. For example, the SEM recognizes that an individual’s experiences are impacted by the quality of their relationships and the prevailing social norms. As such, the SEM consists of factors within multiple interconnected levels: individual (such as age and education), relationship (such as gender roles and family support), community (such as community support services), and societal (such as law and norms) [21].
Intersectionality recognizes how multiple intersecting social identities and factors can shape individuals’ experiences of IPV. Intersectionality acknowledges that people do not have single, isolated identities but exist at the intersection of various social categories, such as race, gender, class, sexual orientation, disability, and others. These intersecting identities can influence how individuals experience, respond to, and are affected by IPV [26]. Crenshaw contends that intersecting locations of race and gender position women of color (including immigrant women) in ways that make their experiences of IPV, and responses to IPV, different from other women. Work centered around intersectionality has expanded to consider how race and gender interconnect with other axes of privilege and oppression, including immigration and cultural issues. For example, the race of abused immigrant women may affect their access to health services because many immigrant women coming from different ethnic backgrounds do not trust health services. This is particularly true for immigrant women from minority ethnic and gender groups, where the first response to cases of IPV is situated within other factors including immigration issues. Their fear of having their sponsorship canceled, combined with a lack of trust in healthcare providers, may prevent immigrant women from seeking help with IPV issues. In the same context, many cultural norms of immigrant women may intersect with immigration-related issues, leading them to a unique experience of IPV. For example, a woman from a conservative cultural background might feel intense pressure to maintain family honor and stay in her marriage, despite experiencing IPV. Simultaneously, she might fear that seeking help could jeopardize her immigration status if her abusive spouse, who is also her sponsor, retaliates by withdrawing sponsorship. This combination of cultural expectations and immigration-related threats creates a unique and complex barrier to escaping IPV. In investigating the impact of COVID-19 on IPV among immigrant women in Canada, it is critical to contextualize the intersecting roles of race and immigration status. Immigrant women, particularly those from racialized communities, experience systemic barriers that increase their vulnerability to IPV. Canada’s immigration policies, coupled with racial inequalities, impact these women’s access to support services and protection. Racialized immigrant women may face additional challenges such as discrimination, fear of deportation, cultural stigmatization, and language barriers, which can hinder their ability to seek help. Additionally, COVID-19 intensified existing inequalities, disproportionately affecting immigrant communities through economic instability, health disparities, and social isolation. These circumstances compound the difficulties immigrant women face when escaping violent situations, making it essential to consider how race and immigration intersect with IPV in the unique Canadian context during the COVID-19 pandemic. Addressing these intersections highlights the need for more inclusive policies and culturally sensitive support systems to better protect vulnerable immigrant populations during crises such as COVID-19.
Intersectionality considers the need for a comprehensive analysis of IPV risk factors and recognizes that solely highlighting one system of oppression may lead to IPV experiences being underestimated. Intersectionality highlights the significance of social location; individuals have numerous identities, and these identities intersect in various contexts. For example, immigrant women may retain several identities, and the confluence of these identities explains the significance of their social location [5]. Several identities may include being a person of color and Muslim or being a woman and immigrant. The intersection of these identities can create unique challenges and experiences, which contribute to their social location. Applying intersectionality to the experiences of IPV among immigrant women during the COVID-19 pandemic can help in understanding how these experiences were shaped differently and how they can be addressed appropriately [19].
Together, the SEM and intersectionality can provide a comprehensive understanding of the experience of IPV among immigrant women during the COVID-19 pandemic by considering the various levels of influence and intersecting identities. The integration of the SEM and intersectionality allows us to understand the complex web of factors that contributed to IPV among immigrant women during the pandemic. This integration underscores the importance of recognizing that these women’s experiences were shaped by their unique identities and the socio-environmental context in which they live.
The COVID-19 pandemic disproportionately affected marginalized populations such as Black women, immigrant women, and other less fortunate groups. In other words, the pandemic had a particularly negative effect on populations that hold one or multiple minority identities. For example, the pandemic forced skilled immigrant women toward unemployment or less stable employment, which made them more susceptible to IPV [27]. Also, the pandemic exacerbated already existing health disparities in immigrant communities [28]. As such, this paper will examine how the COVID-19 context has impacted immigrant women and increased their vulnerability to IPV and how it increased their challenges in seeking help or fleeing IPV. While the pandemic affected people worldwide, marginalized individuals—especially those who hold multiple, intersecting overlapping identities—may have been the most affected.
2. Methods
The narrative nature of this review was nominated to obtain a broad understanding of the intersections of IPV and the COVID-19 pandemic among immigrant women. A narrative review is beneficial for tackling critical matters that demand a new perspective. Within this type of review, the reviewers themselves act as analytical tools to interpret the literature through their unique viewpoints and suggest an innovative approach to understanding a particular problem. A narrative review outlines the current literature and investigates what is known about a specific issue. An exploration of the current research around the relationships between IPV and the COVID-19 pandemic was deemed necessary to obtain a comprehensive understanding of this intersection. This review examines the diverse research already available to obtain a clear understanding of how IPV and the COVID-19 pandemic intersect among immigrant women. While conducting this narrative review, the researchers did not acquire a complete accounting of all statements pertaining to this topic; instead, they drew upon their expertise and chose research that most effectively addressed their research inquiries and had the potential to reshape their field’s perspective on this matter [29]. This sampling process did not reflect any bias in the research. Instead, the inclusion criteria employed in this study led to the selection of literature that offered a broad and varied coverage of the existing research, which allowed for a comprehensive exploration of the research questions.
The inclusion criteria for this review were peer-reviewed studies published in English. The population of the studies were women who experienced IPV before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. All study types were considered, including quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods, reviews, and others. Studies published in languages other than English were excluded, as were opinion articles, letters to the editor, and abstracts. Studies with a population that did not identify as immigrant women and had not experienced IPV during the COVID-19 pandemic were excluded. Also, studies that did not relate to the intersections of IPV and the COVID-19 pandemic among immigrant women were excluded.
The search was performed on 15 December 2023, and repeated on 30 December 2023, to make sure that this review included all new articles if any were published after the first search date. For this review, five electronic databases, including CINAHL, ScienceDirect, Scopus, ResearchGate, and PubMed, were searched to obtain English publications from the last four years (2019–2023) pertaining to IPV and the COVID-19 pandemic among immigrant women. The reason for selecting these databases was to ensure a thorough investigation of the latest research findings. This narrative review embraces pluralism by including multiple databases. Also, a manual search through abstracts, peer reviews, and references of articles was conducted. Multiple search terms were used including “IPV” and “COVID-19” (refer to Table 1). A combination of two key concepts (core key terms and their synonyms) was used: “IPV” AND “COVID-19” AND “population”. The key search terms were used in various combinations, employing the Boolean operators (“AND” and “OR”) (refer to Figure 1). In searching, each main concept was connected with its synonyms by the Boolean operator “OR.” Then, all main concepts were combined using “AND” to recognize related studies. Search terms were combined in the following manner:
(All “IPV” terms were connected by the search term OR) AND (all “population” terms were connected by the search term OR) AND (all “COVID-19” terms were connected by the search term OR). Table 1 shows the key search terms used in this review.
The data extracted from the chosen articles were analyzed and synthesized using the thematic mapping method, which was used in this study because of the unique composition of the articles included. Three steps were followed, as described by Etowa et al., to ensure a systematic approach to organizing and interpreting the information. In step 1, after data extraction, data from individual articles was coded to identify and analyze patterns and themes. Step 2 focused on analyzing these categories to develop analytical themes within each group based on similarity. Lastly, in step 3, a cross-group analysis of these analytical themes was conducted and synthesized to yield the ultimate main themes [30]. In step 1, two reviewers (MF and JE) used inductive reasoning to code the studies line by line for content, main ideas, and meaning. The reviewers gathered these initial codes based on the codes’ similarities and differences. In step 2, new codes were created based on the meaning of these groups, thus generating a number of layers of descriptive themes. A draft summary of the descriptive themes was composed by MF and subsequently re-reviewed by JE, followed by discussions until a final consensus was achieved. In step 3, the final descriptive themes were created [30].
Studies were eligible for inclusion if they broadly examined IPV experienced by immigrant women. Because of limited resources for translation, articles published in languages other than English were excluded. Articles in English but from a different country were included. Articles that were not primary studies were excluded, but their reference lists were searched for possible related articles. A total of 260 imported articles were screened at this stage. The title and abstract of each article were screened independently by both interviewers JE and MF. Titles for which an abstract was not available were included during the full article screening phase. All articles with an abstract or title that did not meet the inclusion criteria were precluded. A total of 181 studies were irrelevant and excluded; 59 studies were moved to the full article screening phase. For articles that could not be found through institutional resources available to the authors, attempts were made to contact the main author or journal for assistance in obtaining the article. Of these, 17 studies met the inclusion criteria, and the rest were excluded. During this stage, the reviewers met to resolve conflicts and ensure the consistency of the process.
While this review was only intended to focus on immigrant women living in Canada, all studies in English were included because of the scarcity of Canadian studies related to this issue. To address this discrepancy, we employed a rigorous approach to synthesizing findings from studies conducted in different countries while ensuring relevance to the Canadian context. This involved a careful examination of the methodologies, populations studied, and key findings across the included studies to identify common themes and patterns that were relevant to immigrant women in Canada. In addition, our analysis incorporated a comparative lens, through which we critically assessed the applicability of findings from diverse contexts to the Canadian context. This involved considering factors such as socio-cultural differences, policy frameworks, and institutional contexts that may influence the experiences of immigrant women in Canada compared to other countries. Additionally, our interpretation and synthesis of the literature were guided by existing theoretical frameworks and empirical evidence specific to immigrant integration, gender dynamics, and intersectionality, which helped contextualize our findings within the Canadian context.
The data analysis process utilized a combination of manual coding and thematic grouping, as outlined earlier. The initial step involved coding the data from each article, where key concepts, ideas, and patterns were identified and labeled. JE and MF conducted this process manually to ensure a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the data.
Following the coding phase, thematic grouping was performed to organize the coded data into overarching themes. This process involved iteratively examining the coded segments to identify commonalities, patterns, and relationships, which were then grouped into coherent thematic categories. While this analysis phase could have been facilitated by software, we opted for a manual approach to allow for greater flexibility and interpretive depth in identifying emergent themes. It is important to note that the themes identified in our analysis were not predetermined or preconceived but emerged organically from the coded data. While the themes may align with the objectives of this research, this alignment reflects the deliberate selection of research questions that were designed to explore key dimensions of the phenomenon under investigation.
3. Findings
The main themes for this narrative review are as follows:
- The realities of COVID-19 pandemic restrictions;
- IPV vulnerabilities during the COVID-19 pandemic;
- The impacts of IPV and the COVID-19 pandemic;
- Strategies to address IPV (women and system perspectives).
3.1. Theme 1: The Realities of COVID-19 Pandemic Restrictions
The realities of COVID-19 pandemic restrictions impacted IPV victims/survivors broadly, but a focused analysis through the SEM and intersectional lens revealed unique challenges faced by immigrant women. On the individual and interpersonal levels, the COVID-19 pandemic exaggerated the danger that immigrant women may face from their abusive partners. Immigrant women, including immigrant women living in Canada, experienced the pandemic differently [31,32,33]. For example, during the pandemic, abused immigrant women experienced increased isolation due to lockdowns and language barriers, which interacted to increase their loneliness and feelings of helplessness. Immigration status, particularly for undocumented immigrant women, may have caused fear about reporting IPV during COVID-19 restrictions because doing so could jeopardize their uncertain status. In the same context, the hierarchy of citizenship, which refers to the unequal distribution of rights, privileges, and protections based on an individual’s citizenship status within a society, demonstrates how different immigration statuses (e.g., permanent resident, temporary worker, refugee, undocumented immigrant) impact immigrant women’s access to resources, legal protections, and social services, which may increase their marginalization [34]. The hierarchy of citizenship can explain how an immigrant woman’s position in this hierarchy shapes her ability to access support, report IPV, or leave abusive situations.
Also, immigrant women who are dependent financially on their spouses due to barriers in finding employment or lack of work authorization were further marginalized as the situation of COVID-19 made it extremely challenging to seek financial help and leave an abusive situation. Furthermore, many immigrant women had reduced work hours or lost their jobs during the pandemic, which resulted in increased financial dependency on their abuser. Similarly, on the interpersonal level, the pandemic led to many challenges for immigrant women. All family members including children had to cope with the stress of social distancing. With schools closed, immigrant women faced extreme difficulties as they experienced increased pressure to work from home and to take care of children who may need constant help with their homeschooling while access to other resources such as grandparents was restricted. Immigrant women facing language barriers encountered additional challenges with homeschooling during the COVID-19 pandemic. These language difficulties often intersected with other risk factors, compounding their struggles. For example, many immigrant women had difficulties using online educational platforms due to limited digital literacy and language proficiency. Immigrant women with language barriers may also have had problems communicating with schoolteachers, leading to misunderstandings or missed information crucial for their children’s education [33].
After the declaration of the pandemic, at the community level, there was disruption of, or more limited access to, health and social services for immigrant women. In Canada, many hospitals and community centers were re-organized and reduced services. There were some closures or partial closures, and some services were reduced in some places to emergency cases only. Community organizations offering help to victims of IPV were among those disrupted and interrupted. The majority were unable to provide in-person services and moved to online platforms, which in some cases were not the best option for women experiencing IPV [35,36,37]. Many issues were raised for immigrant women who experienced abuse during these times. The lack of access to these basic services can be particularly harmful to immigrant women and their children due to their high vulnerabilities to isolation, language barriers, and other immigration issues [7,9]. Additionally, the restriction of social networks adversely affected immigrant women, particularly those from cultures where they heavily depend on robust social connections. The requirements to stay at home and follow social distancing guidelines, combined with other COVID-19 realities like the inability to access community services and school closures, hindered women’s ability to report or escape IPV [38,39]. For example, some abused women could no longer seek respite at schools, parks, or malls during the lockdown. Consequently, immigrant women felt trapped during the COVID-19 pandemic [40,41,42].
On the social level, the pandemic highlighted and worsened pre-existing healthcare, economic, and legal disparities faced by immigrant women. Discrimination within healthcare systems, economic instability, and restrictive immigration policies compounded their vulnerabilities, making it difficult for them to access necessary support and services. Multiple identities and systemic issues intersected to create unique and compounded challenges for immigrant women. Factors such as race, gender, immigration status, socioeconomic status, and language proficiency interacted to intensify their experiences of IPV and limit their access to support [43,44]. Many studies also discussed the correlation between social determinants of health and IPV. They discussed how poverty, race, gender, and other factors interacted on the social level and negatively impacted women’s ability to navigate the social system in Canada and flee abuse [41,43,44]. In this context, the lens of intersectionality can expose how racism operated within some lockdown policies to perpetuate discriminatory social norms and leadership structures. Racism within these policies refers to how certain measures may have disproportionately impacted people of color, including immigrant women living in Canada, due to pre-existing social and economic inequalities. Discriminatory social norms were apparent during the COVID-19 pandemic. For example, immigrant women of color faced additional scrutiny or harsher enforcement of lockdown rules because of racial stereotypes [2,10]. Also, due to the prevailing leadership structure in organizations and institutions that made and enforced lockdown policies, these policies were not culturally responsive to abused immigrant women’s experiences during the pandemic. As such, these policies may have inadvertently or deliberately perpetuated discrimination.
It can clearly be inferred that immigrant women’s ability to seek help or flee IPV was very limited during the COVID-19 pandemic. Consequently, during lockdowns, there was a noticeable increase in IPV prevalence among immigrant women. This increase was due to IPV drivers that were exaggerated during the pandemic. It is important to recognize immigrant women’s experiences of IPV by addressing this complex and hidden impact of the COVID-19 pandemic between 2020 and 2022. Highlighting the intersection of the risk factors of IPV—including the pandemic itself—is necessary to reveal the complexity of these experiences.
3.2. Theme 2: IPV Vulnerabilities During the COVID-19 Pandemic
During the COVID-19 pandemic, many immigrant women experienced multiple and intersecting oppressions that were a result of existing disparities or influenced and exaggerated by the unique circumstances and stressors brought about by the public health crisis. Several key factors contributed to an increased risk of IPV during this time. According to Heise’s SEM, these factors can be divided into four levels (individual, relationship, community, and social) that could intersect and overlap, exposing immigrants to IPV.
3.3. Individual-Level Factors
The COVID-19 pandemic made vulnerable populations such as abused immigrant women more vulnerable to IPV. Our analysis showed that many individual factors were exacerbated by the pandemic, including financial precarity, limited education, and language barriers. At the individual level within the SEM, various personal characteristics and vulnerabilities intersected to heighten the risk of IPV for immigrant women during the pandemic. Limited education, unemployment, language barriers, and substance abuse were critical factors that intersected to create a potentially higher-risk environment for these women. The intersectionality framework helps us understand how these overlapping factors exacerbated their vulnerability. Research indicated that immigrant women who had experienced IPV before the pandemic reported heightened vulnerability to abuse during the pandemic. Specifically, these women noted an increase in their partners’ alcohol consumption, with usage rising to at least once per week, which exacerbated their exposure to IPV. The increased alcohol use correlated with a surge in abusive incidents. Other studies in this review examined how the stress of the pandemic led to increased alcohol consumption among male partners, which in turn escalated incidents of IPV [44,45,46]. Additionally, multiple studies revealed a rise in controlling behaviors by male partners during the pandemic. This increase in control and abuse was attributed to the interplay of various individual factors, including the stress and anxiety brought on by the pandemic, economic pressures, and pre-existing patterns of behavior. For example, the language barriers faced by undocumented immigrant women intersected with other factors such as economic dependence and their partner’s increased substance abuse during the pandemic. These overlapping challenges amplified their experiences, making it increasingly difficult for them to escape the cycle of IPV and seek help [44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51].
These findings underscore how the COVID-19 pandemic intensified the already precarious situations of immigrant women facing IPV, highlighting the critical need for targeted support and interventions that consider the unique challenges posed by the intersection of these individual factors [40,52]. During the pandemic, immigrant women faced a complex web of challenges on the individual level including unemployment, language barriers, and substance abuse. Recognizing how these factors intersected to create an unsafe environment for these immigrant women is essential for developing a holistic understanding of IPV. To effectively support immigrant women facing IPV, it is crucial to provide comprehensive assistance. This means addressing not just the physical aspects of violence but also the underlying factors that contribute to it. Efforts should focus on tailoring services to the specific needs and challenges of immigrant populations. For example, empowering immigrant women to overcome these individual factors is a key goal. This involves not only providing immediate safety and protection but also equipping them with the tools and resources to gain financial independence and access support services.
3.4. Relationship-Level Factors
In the context of immigrant women, when considering IPV during the COVID-19 pandemic at the relationship level, it is important to recognize that abusive dynamics can be influenced by various factors within the context of the relationship. At the relationship level, the SEM considers the dynamics between individuals in a close relationship. This includes examining factors such as communication patterns, power and control dynamics, conflict resolution strategies, support, children witnessing abuse, and other relationship dynamics that contribute to IPV. The studies included in this review confirmed that being at home aggravated difficult situations, with particular concern for homes where partners beat their wives with objects or where guns are present (the COVID-19 pandemic led to an increase in gun sales), which can lead to a rise in intimate partner homicides, murders, and suicides [53].
Many studies confirmed that the pandemic impacted relationships negatively [54]. This impact was evident in heightened conflict within relationships [55], decreased levels of relationship satisfaction and commitment [56], and increased divorce rates [57]. For immigrant women experiencing IPV, stay-at-home orders limited the avenues to address conflicts and tensions, potentially resulting in more arguments and, in certain instances, an escalation of violent incidents.
The studies in this review suggested that negative experiences in a person’s close relationships, such as parental stress, lack of healthy coping mechanisms, exposure to violence during childhood, and mental health struggles, can significantly increase risk factors at the interpersonal level of the SEM [58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65]. For example, parental stress, intensified by the pandemic, played a significant role in escalating IPV. Immigrant women, already facing the pressures of managing household responsibilities and children’s education during school closures, experienced increased tension and conflict with their partners. This stress often manifested as more frequent and severe episodes of IPV [58,59].
Through an intersectional lens, we can see how these stressors are compounded by other factors such as economic instability, limited access to support services, and cultural expectations. For example, immigrant women may have worked in low-wage jobs or may have lost employment due to the pandemic, increasing financial dependence on their partners and heightening stress levels. Cultural norms might pressure them to prioritize family unity over personal safety, making it harder to seek help. Additionally, language barriers can prevent effective communication with educators and service providers, further isolating immigrant women and exacerbating their stress. These intersecting factors create a multifaceted risk environment that significantly amplifies the impact of parental stress on IPV during the pandemic.
Additionally, exposure to violence in childhood emerged as a critical factor. Individuals who experienced or witnessed violence during their formative years are more likely to replicate these behaviors in their adult relationships. Also, partners who viewed IPV as an appropriate discipline were more likely to use IPV during COVID-19 to resolve conflicts. For immigrant women, this past trauma can intersect with current stressors, creating a cycle of violence that is difficult to break. For instance, immigrant women from cultures where discussing personal or family issues is stigmatized may be less likely to seek help for past trauma or current abuse. The pandemic heightened these cultural barriers, as lockdowns and social distancing measures limited access to community support and services. Immigration status adds another layer of vulnerability, as undocumented women may fear deportation if they report violence, leaving them trapped in abusive situations. This fear was intensified during the pandemic due to increased restrictions and uncertainty [66,67].
Economic hardship, exacerbated by job losses and reduced income during the pandemic further compounded immigrant women’s difficulties. They are often financially dependent on their abusers, making it even harder for immigrant women to leave abusive situations. The stress of economic instability, coupled with the trauma of past violence, creates a toxic environment that can perpetuate the cycle of abuse [68]. Mental health challenges also combined with the multiple stressors specific to immigrant women during the COVID-19 pandemic, further intensifying their experiences of IPV.
These co-occurring interpersonal-level risk factors underline the applicability of the SEM in identifying multiple drivers of risk for both IPV and the COVID-19 pandemic and offer insights for the design and implementation of comprehensive and integrated interventions. At the interpersonal level, it would be ideal for program planners to create programs that empower immigrant women by creating opportunities for employment training as well as promoting partner counseling on conflict resolution and healthy relationships.
3.5. Community-Level Factors
IPV during the COVID-19 pandemic was influenced by a range of risk factors at the community level. It is worth noting that, in some cases, community-level factors can help mitigate the risk of IPV, as suggested by Usta et al. [69]. The community-level risk factors for IPV during the pandemic included limited access to support services, disruption of community programs, and reduced community monitoring, especially for immigrant women who already experience isolation. Immigrant women often face barriers to accessing support services even in normal times due to language barriers, lack of information, and fear of deportation. During the COVID-19 pandemic, these barriers were exacerbated as many support services moved online or were reduced due to lockdown measures. Immigrant women who may not have reliable internet access or the digital literacy required to navigate online services found it even more difficult to seek help, increasing their vulnerability to IPV. Finding culturally sensitive and appropriate IPV services or support networks also can be challenging for immigrant women. Further, their ability to seek help can be impeded by community attitudes toward IPV and immigration status, leading to heightened isolation and inadequate social assistance and resources for immigrant women [34].
Additionally, community programs that offer resources and support to immigrant women, such as cultural centers, language classes, and social groups, were disrupted or halted during the pandemic. These programs often provide a lifeline for women, offering not just practical support but also a sense of community and belonging. The absence of these programs during the pandemic left many immigrant women without critical support, exacerbating feelings of isolation and making it more challenging for them to escape abusive situations. Typically, community programs and services act as monitors, keeping an eye out for signs of IPV. However, during the pandemic, these services were reduced. For immigrant women, who may already be isolated due to cultural and language barriers, this reduction in community oversight further heightened their vulnerability.
The disruption of community programs and reduced access to support services compounded other challenges, making it harder for immigrant women to find safety and support. Ultimately, the intersectionality lens reveals how the interplay of community-level factors during the COVID-19 pandemic intensified the risk of IPV for immigrant women. Addressing these intersecting vulnerabilities requires a multifaceted approach that considers the unique challenges immigrant women face and seeks to restore and adapt community support systems to provide comprehensive and accessible assistance [70,71].
3.6. Social-Level Factors
Social-level risk factors for IPV during the COVID-19 pandemic have only been investigated in a small number of research studies. During the height of the pandemic, the absence of clear and inclusive policies regarding IPV significantly contributed to the elevation of IPV rates and incidences against immigrant women [72]. The research revealed how insufficient support and legal measures to protect abused immigrant women during the pandemic were contributing factors to the increase in IPV [41]. During the pandemic, the policies related to IPV were not well-defined or so strict that they made immigrant women facing IPV less likely to report the abuse or seek help. Also, the absence of clear and specific policies related to IPV during the pandemic affected resource allocation. Without specific guidelines, it was challenging for governments and organizations to allocate resources effectively to support survivors and prevent IPV [73,74]. New social welfare funds and other national policies at the social level were required to reduce the negative impacts of the economic downturn caused by the pandemic, specifically for abused women [75]. A number of studies confirmed the need for these policies and interventions to improve access to services on the national level [76,77,78,79,80]. Often, structural and legal restrictions informed by wider societal policies and attitudes influence risk factors at the social level, with the hierarchy of citizenship playing a dominant role [34]. As such, immigrant women’s access to healthcare, legal services, housing, and financial aid can be limited by restrictions related to their immigration or residency status, with fear of deportation or other legal consequences further impeding their ability to seek assistance. Undocumented or recently arrived immigrants may not qualify to receive public services including those that would otherwise provide a means to escape IPV.
Abused immigrant women during the COVID-19 pandemic faced different barriers to fleeing abuse or reporting it due to the hardship of the pandemic itself as well as the lack of policies and services available to them [81]. The intersection of economic instability, cultural and language barriers, and inadequate legal protections made it exceedingly difficult for these women to find safety and support during the pandemic.
3.7. Theme 3: The Impacts of IPV and the COVID-19 Pandemic
The COVID-19 pandemic profoundly impacted the lives and mental well-being of immigrant women, especially those in the perinatal period including pregnant and childbearing women. Immigrant women are a vulnerable population that already faced intersecting mental health issues and socioeconomic disparities before the COVID-19 pandemic [80]. Our findings suggest that the pandemic added another layer of intersectional challenges for abused immigrant women, underscoring how three critical issues—IPV, the COVID-19 pandemic, and immigration—compounded upon each other to create significant difficulties for abused immigrant women.
The most visible effect of the pandemic on the individual level was on mental health and its consequences among immigrant women [82]. Immigrant women faced an increased risk of experiencing post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, depression, substance use, and suicidal behaviors as a result of the controlling and coercive tactics that their partners deployed during the pandemic period. The cumulative effects of the pandemic, combined with existing trauma resulting from abusive situations, increased the risk of post-traumatic stress among immigrant women. The ongoing stressors and uncertainty in the situation further exacerbated mental health challenges [83]. Studies confirmed that these multiple overlapping risk factors impacted immigrant women who experienced IPV during the pandemic. For example, immigrant women who needed to deal with the immigration process, child-rearing responsibilities, IPV experiences, and economic hardship were more vulnerable to increased stress and exposure to mental health issues than immigrant women who were only dealing with economic hardship [82,83,84].
Each of the aforementioned factors interacted on the individual level to create a compounded impact on the health of immigrant women. To address these intersecting challenges, comprehensive and culturally sensitive interventions are needed. These should include targeted mental health support, economic assistance, legal protections, and accessible healthcare services. By understanding and addressing the unique needs of immigrant women through an intersectional approach, it is possible to provide more effective support and reduce the risk of IPV during the pandemic and in future crises.
On the interpersonal level, multiple effects of the COVID-19 pandemic were discussed in the studies. These impacts included increased marital conflicts, heightened caregiver responsibilities, and a greater dependency on spouses for emotional, economic, and immigration-related reasons. Examining these effects through an intersectional lens reveals how various factors such as race, gender, socioeconomic status, and immigration status intersected to amplify the vulnerability of immigrant women. One of the studies discussed how some immigrants, based on their immigration status, were not eligible for unemployment benefits during the pandemic once they lost their jobs. This situation created marital conflicts and impacted the immigrant women negatively [85].
Further, our analysis revealed that the COVID-19 pandemic significantly impacted the personal relationships of immigrant women experiencing IPV. The pandemic exacerbated existing tensions and conflicts within households, leading to increased marital conflicts. Immigrant women, already facing the pressures of managing household duties and children’s education during school closures, experienced heightened dependency on their spouses for emotional, economic, and immigration-related support. This dependency was further complicated by financial instability and the stress of navigating life in a new country under pandemic conditions. The intersection of various factors such as race, gender, socioeconomic status, and immigration status intensified these challenges, making it increasingly difficult for immigrant women to escape abusive situations and access necessary support [85]. Our analysis showed that more research is needed on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on interpersonal relationships.
On the community and institutional level, the results of our analysis found that immigrant women did not access health and social services associated with IPV as a result of the closure of many organizations serving IPV survivors and the emergency focus in hospitals. This suggests that immigrant women experiencing IPV were deterred from seeking much-needed health and social services, indicating missed opportunities to address the physical and mental health consequences of their IPV experiences [85,86,87,88]. Designing and offering integrated and culturally responsive interventions to address the barriers to seeking health and social services would have assisted abused immigrant women and those at risk of IPV during the height of the COVID-19 pandemic. Health and social institutions should provide culturally sensitive interventions for these women, especially during crises such as the pandemic when stigma and trauma-related IPV were high rather than discouraging reporting IPV because of the focus on the wider emergency.
On the social level, the COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated pre-existing inequalities and disparities. Our analysis showed that this included societal norms fueled by gender inequalities. Multiple studies underscored the impact of the pandemic on immigrant women experiencing IPV, confirming that these women were expected to take on additional caregiving and household responsibilities—and if any failure occurred, they would be blamed and experience IPV as a result [88,89].
Also on this level, it has been confirmed that during the pandemic, discrimination and stigma based on immigration status and cultural differences were intensified. During the pandemic’s peak, immigrant women often faced challenges based on their intersectional identities, including factors such as race, ethnicity, gender, and socioeconomic status. The compounding impact of these intersecting inequalities disproportionately affected immigrant women during the pandemic [90,91]. The intersectionality lens reveals how the overlapping effects of these intersecting factors disproportionately affected immigrant women, amplifying their vulnerabilities and challenges during the pandemic.
For instance, consider an undocumented immigrant woman of color who lost her job due to the economic downturn caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. This woman already faced significant challenges, including language barriers and limited access to healthcare and social services. During the pandemic, societal expectations intensified her caregiving responsibilities, and any perceived failure to manage these duties led to increased blame and IPV from her partner. Additionally, discrimination based on her immigration status and cultural background became more pronounced, further isolating her from potential support networks. The intersection of her race, gender, socioeconomic status, and immigration status exacerbated her situation, making it nearly impossible for her to seek help or escape the cycle of abuse. It is suggested that society can better support abused immigrant women in such contexts by advocating for systemic changes to diminish the effects of destructive social norms, protect women’s rights, and promote policies to lessen structural inequalities and discriminatory gender practices.
3.8. Theme 4: Strategies to Address IPV (Women and System Perspectives)
In this theme, we can adopt an intersectional feminist approach to present the perspectives, voices, and strategies used by immigrant women living in Canada during the COVID-19 pandemic. The studies reported that immigrant women used multiple strategies to address IPV, with IPV-related strategies predominantly emerging from site-specific qualitative work. At the individual and relationship level, three distinct themes of strategies emerged: avoidance, building strong resilience, and building personal resources.
One key strategy was avoidance of all situations leading to IPV to minimize the destruction effect of IPV on self and family [92,93]. For instance, some women would refrain from discussing sensitive topics, alter their behavior to align with their partner’s expectations, or even limit their social interactions to avoid conflict. This coping mechanism, while aimed at reducing immediate harm, often led to increased isolation and a sense of helplessness. Despite the temporary relief it provided, avoidance did not address the root causes of IPV and could contribute to the perpetuation of the abusive cycle. This finding highlighted the need for comprehensive support systems that not only offer immediate help and safety but also empower these women to break the IPV cycle [23].
Building resilience was another strategy used by immigrant women. They developed resilience through various means, such as seeking emotional support from trusted friends and family members, even if it was through discreet communication methods due to fear of their partners. This resilience-building process was not just about enduring the abuse but also about finding ways to improve their circumstances and protect their families. It involved a combination of mental fortitude, strategic planning, and leveraging available resources to create a pathway toward a safer and more secure future [23,94,95]. Although creating a list of resources was a method used by immigrant women as part of this strategy, resources were limited and those available were not culturally responsive to abused immigrant women [85,96].
While it must be acknowledged that access to community organizations and resources for abused immigrant women was limited during the COVID-19 pandemic, three main themes about this institutional level emerged: using digital services (e.g., video conferencing and digital communication platforms), using social media to seek support, and using the available and limited community resources [97,98,99,100].
Using digital services to seek IPV health information and IPV-related services was widely achieved through internet-based interventions and mobile phone applications such as the “HelpSeeker” app, which emerged as a convenient resource that coordinated information on relevant services available during the COVID-19 pandemic for a variety of social needs such as housing and IPV support. Immigrant women also used social media such as Snapchat, in which IPV information was provided through the “stories” feature, with the video content muted and with closed captioning so that it could be viewed without notifying a nearby abuser [100]. Community resources included Uber business that offered free rides for IPV survivors and some hotel chains that offered rooms to victims of IPV in selected areas in Canada [100].
Using technology such as chat, video, and text messaging to communicate with survivors of IPV brings several benefits, including providing a means of discreet and immediate support and connection to resources. However, these technological methods also pose significant risks. Safety concerns arise because electronic communications can be monitored or intercepted by abusers, leading to potential breaches of privacy and confidentiality. The pandemic’s associated lockdowns and social distancing measures led to an increase in abusers’ controlling behaviors. These behaviors included constant surveillance and restricting access to communication devices. As a result, the risk of experiencing additional IPV escalated for many immigrant women. The same risk and benefit assumption can be applied to using social media. Social media can serve as a platform for IPV survivors to receive emotional and informational support; however, it can also lead to negative and victim-blaming messages.
While these strategies were used by abused immigrant women in Canada, more research is needed to determine their effectiveness at the social level.
4. Discussion and Implications
IPV against immigrant women significantly increased during the COVID-19 pandemic [98]. Many studies have investigated the reasons for the increase in IPV during the pandemic [75]. Other studies have examined the risk factors of IPV specifically during the pandemic [78,99]. The COVID-19 pandemic itself was a significant reason for the exacerbation of IPV against immigrant women [100]. In response, studies called for better interventions to improve the mental health of IPV victims during the pandemic [100]. Healthcare providers including nurses, policymakers, and stakeholders globally voiced concerns regarding the potential for the pandemic to increase IPV. Clear evidence in the research indicated that existing health disparities were exacerbated by the pandemic, including IPV-related disparities among immigrant women. Therefore, specific interventions are necessary to tackle these challenges for immigrant women. For example, specific interventions and strategies can be developed to support immigrant women with a lack of access to technology.
All studies included in this narrative review suggested that there were many stressors related to IPV that were intensified during the COVID-19 pandemic. Immigrant women specifically were at a higher risk of the negative outcomes of the pandemic because of the intersection of multiple factors such as unemployment, poverty, isolation, quarantine measures, and increased partner surveillance. These multiple factors also led to limited opportunities to seek help or leave their abusive relationships. As such, immigrant women needed for there to be an action in place to relieve the consequences of the pandemic and its impact. Efforts needed to be comprehensive and include different interventions on the SEM levels. Also, to enhance the effectiveness of current interventions that aim to help abused immigrant women, future interventions should be driven by the abused immigrant women (a client-centric approach). In this context, there is not a one-solution-fits-all, so it is vital to listen to the immigrant women and to explore alternative options that will align with their needs on the different levels of the SEM.
On the individual level, an effective starting point would be to increase the immigrant women’s level of awareness about the types of IPV besides physical abuse and to bolster accessibility to informational resources and other community resources. This may assist women in realizing the reality of IPV and allow them to seek timely support. Specialized programs for employment seekers are needed, including bridge programs to enhance the employment rate of immigrant women to help them achieve financial independence. Literacy and employment will improve economic independence and hence decrease their risk of IPV during crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic.
On the relationship level, efforts should focus on enhancing marital relationships, including raising awareness among immigrant women regarding healthy relationship dynamics. Teenagers and adolescent girls should also be involved in these initiatives to disrupt the cycle of violence, ensuring the intervention aligns with their cultural norms. Additionally, concise and engaging programs addressing IPV, utilizing motivational interviewing and empowerment strategies, should be implemented.
At the community level, healthcare providers should be able to identify such cases and pay attention to IPV, especially in situations such as the COVID-19 pandemic. This can be achieved through training to effectively teach them how to identify at-risk immigrant women, safety plans that can be adopted, and referrals to local and culturally responsive organizations that can be made. Telehealth and individualized care can be great resources for IPV survivors, particularly when considering the lack of privacy these women may experience. Healthcare professionals should devise potential culturally responsive solutions and advocate for alternative arrangements that maximize safety when needed. Healthcare professionals may consider having an interdisciplinary team to take care of IPV survivors, and they need to have a connection directly with the police in such a context. Mandatory training on IPV survivor and perpetrator culturally sensitive interventions and the indicators of IPV among immigrant women, including nonphysical violence, should be incorporated into curricula at health and social educational institutions. This proposed training would provide healthcare professionals with the skills and abilities to recognize the early indications of abuse and assist both survivors and perpetrators in finding ways to coexist safely, especially when leaving the home might not be feasible. These approaches should align with cultural norms and acknowledge the historical context of structural barriers. To promote community engagement in assisting immigrant women who experience abuse, a sustainable community-based network and peer support groups can help these immigrant women flee abuse.
On the society and policy level, funding for integrated and culturally specific legal, medical, and housing services is another crucial issue to be addressed for immigrant women experiencing IPV. Likewise, it is crucial for law enforcement to understand the cultural complexities linked with immigrant communities to effectively respond to cases of IPV, given that they typically serve as the primary responders to domestic violence reports. Healthcare professionals also need to use evidence-based interventions aimed at decreasing the health consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic that have led to chronic health problems among immigrant women. To ensure the success of any policy or interventions in place, immigrant women must be engaged in the needs assessment, planning, implementation, and evaluation processes. Abused immigrant women are the best experts to reflect on their own experiences.
The significance of gaining a more comprehensive understanding of IPV amid the circumstances of the COVID-19 pandemic cannot be emphasized enough. As such, this narrative review tried to analyze studies conducted on this issue alongside the experiences of the authors to reflect on IPV and its risk factors during the pandemic. By using the SEM and the intersectionality, this review’s results offer a distinct understanding of the present state of knowledge regarding the occurrence, frequency, and factors influencing IPV among immigrant women. These insights contribute to the formulation of a comprehensive understanding of IPV during the pandemic plus evidence-based prevention and intervention strategies for IPV. Future policy should consider the risk factors of IPV on the individual, community, and social levels and how they intersect to create unique IPV experiences for immigrant women.
5. Recommendations
Drawing on the authors’ research, experience, and practice in hospitals, shelter homes for abused immigrant women and children, and counseling services, recommendations are delineated below that include strategic and premeditated perspectives and could become a plan for a wide range of intersectional feminist-informed pandemic responses for researchers, healthcare providers, social service providers, and other stakeholders. Policy development, decision-making, public consultation, individual equal opportunity, community mitigation, cultural sensitivity, and social equity are important aspects to reconsider within this intersectional feminist framework.
In the research context, both national and international comparative research on the risk factors and impact of IPV in Canada and different countries is needed that takes into consideration the multilevel risk factors of IPV using the SEM. The research may also benefit from using the intersectionality lens, which promotes broader consideration of multiple factors that shape IPV experiences. The SEM and intersectionality can provide insights into IPV trends among immigrant women during the COVID-19 pandemic. National and international qualitative studies can offer perspectives into the possible disparities in the pandemic effects of IPV among immigrant women across different contexts. Future research also needs to consider investigating specific risk factors associated with marginalized groups such as immigrant women, immigrant women in the perinatal period, and senior immigrant women. Specific risk factors may include cultural differences, which are often overlooked in the research. Other risk factors can also include religious, gender, and other social identities and their impact on immigrant women during the pandemic. Future research should reflect the realities and lived experiences of risks encountered by those who experience unique impacts and heightened risks of IPV such as immigrants, including newcomer, non-status, and refugee women. Research should also provide a comprehensive explanation of IPV’s root causes in the context of the pandemic, specifically the contributing factors on the social level such as the lack of policies and interventions. Overall, further studies are needed to fully understand the unique experiences of IPV among immigrant women in different countries during the pandemic.
Similarly, while developing IPV interventions for such situations, a full consideration of intersectionality can contribute to a deep understanding of the unique combinations of risk factors involved, which will assist in developing appropriate interventions for these immigrant women. The SEM can be used to develop, implement, and evaluate interventions. Developing any intervention should start with understanding individual, community, and social attitudes, beliefs, knowledge, and behaviors related to IPV along with identifying key interpersonal relationships, community norms, and social dynamics influencing IPV in a given context. These considerations will assist in tailoring interventions to target specific individual-, community-, and social-level factors while promoting social justice. Subsequently, the SEM can be used in the final stage to evaluate the changes in each level as a result of the interventions.
Stakeholders, including researchers, elected officials, community advocates, and local leaders, have a crucial role to play in advocating for community and action-oriented interventions that prioritize building strong community relationships. By fostering collaboration between various stakeholders, these interventions can be designed to address the specific needs of the target population in a culturally sensitive manner. This collaborative approach ensures that interventions are not only effective but also respectful of the diverse backgrounds and experiences within the community. Through advocacy and concerted efforts, stakeholders can champion initiatives that empower communities and promote meaningful change.
6. Limitations
There are several limitations of this study. First, the gray literature and non-peer-reviewed publications, such as any government and policy papers, books, and dissertations, were not included in this narrative review. Also, research that yielded no findings, which is less likely to have been published, was not considered, since this review only included the published literature. Another limitation of this study was its restriction to research published exclusively in English. This may result in a language bias that excluded some non-English publications. This review focused on studies that fit the inclusion criteria, which were further limited by the paucity of existing research-based studies examining IPV risk factors and their influence during the COVID-19 pandemic.
An additional limitation arises from the narrative review’s characteristics. Unlike other types of reviews, this narrative review did not present a numerical summary of results or statistical analyses. Narrative reviews are frequently less transparent and may lack standardized reporting guidelines. The authors’ discretion plays a significant role in selecting studies and synthesizing findings, potentially introducing subjectivity and bias. While narrative reviews offer qualitative insight into a topic, their evidence may not be as robust as other formats due to the potential for subjectivity and the absence of a structured methodology.
Also, this review specifically addressed IPV risk factors for immigrant women identified in the literature and analyzed in relation to Canadian immigrant women, which may result in some bias in the analysis. Finally, there is a limited amount of research available on the impacts of COVID-19 on immigrant women in the Canadian context. The scarcity of prior studies on this specific population restricts the ability to compare or build upon the existing findings, which may affect the depth and generalizability of this study’s conclusions.
Essentially, this suggests that the conclusions of this study are limited because we had to work with relatively little information on this topic in the Canadian context, which could have affected the generalizability or depth of our findings.
Nevertheless, this review adds much-needed analysis to the existing research by examining the intersection of IPV and the COVID-19 pandemic and its impact on immigrant women. It considers various studies, methodologies, and viewpoints to offer a comprehensive overview of the topic. This inclusivity ensures that this review is not biased and does not favor one particular perspective.
7. Conclusions
This comprehensive narrative review of the existing works on the IPV risk factors and its influences during the COVID-19 pandemic contributes to advancing a more holistic understanding of this issue while calling for research and health services tailored specifically for this population in Canada and beyond. The evidence generated can inform research and policy interventions to advocate for and support immigrant women’s health (and that of their families) and overall well-being. The critical issue of IPV during the pandemic could not be examined adequately without considering all of the multilevel risk factors of IPV during that period. This examination of the multilevel risk factors adopts an intersectional lens to appreciate the complexity of IPV experiences during the same period.
To tailor adequate interventions, it is crucial to understand the critical intersection of IPV and the COVID-19 pandemic, especially in the context of immigrant women who already experience other IPV-associated factors. IPV interventions must consider the multiple risk factors and their intersections, as these intersections highlight the significance of power dynamics in shaping experiences of IPV. Understanding power structures and imbalances is essential for developing interventions that empower survivors and address the root causes of IPV. The SEM encourages interventions at various levels, from individual behavior change to community engagement and policy advocacy. As such, this inclusive approach aligns with the principles of intersectionality, ensuring that interventions consider the diverse needs of individuals, communities, and society. Further, employing intersectionality and the SEM allows interventions to be adaptable and responsive to changing circumstances. This is particularly important in addressing the evolving nature of IPV and ensuring that interventions remain relevant over time and in the context of different crisis situations. Both the SEM and intersectionality contribute to the aim of reducing disparities in IPV experiences and its impact. In this way, customizing interventions based on intersectional identities and addressing systemic factors would help mitigate the disproportionate impact of IPV on immigrant women, particularly during times of crisis such as the COVID-19 pandemic.
Author Contributions
M.F. proposed this idea, drafted the initial manuscript, and wrote this manuscript. J.E. helped in conceptualizing the ideas and reviewing and editing this manuscript for overall quality improvement. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement
Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement
Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement
Adequate data have been given in the form of tables and figures; however, the authors declare that if more data is required then the data will be provided on a request basis.
Acknowledgments
The co-authors are thankful to the University of Ottawa library for providing the resources necessary to complete this literature collection and article.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Figure 1.
Boolean operator example: IPV AND COVID-19 AND immigrant women.
Table 1.
Key terms.
| #1. Intimate partner violence “Intimate partner violence” OR “IPV” OR “intimate partner abuse” OR “intimate violence” OR “partner violence” OR “partner abuse” OR “domestic abuse” OR “domestic violence” OR “wife abuse” OR “abuse of wife” OR “couple violence” OR “ martial violence” OR “intimate aggression” OR “dating violence” OR “ family violence” OR ”physical violence” OR “ physical abuse” OR “ gender violence” OR “ gender based violence” OR” gender and sexual violence” OR “sexual assault” OR “ sexual abuse” OR “emotional violence” “ emotional abuse” OR “ abused women” OR “women abuse” OR “ battered wom*n” OR “physiological abuse” OR “physiological violence” OR “ sexual and gender based violence” OR “wife beating” OR “ spouse abuse” OR “dating violence” OR “GBV” OR “VAW” OR “sexual violence” OR “ relationship violence” |
| #2. Population “immigrant women” OR “refugees” or “asylum” or “immigrant” |
| #3. “COVID-19” or “coronavirus” or “2019-cov” or “SARS-CoV-2” or “cov-19” |
| #4. “Intersection” OR “impact” OR “effects” OR “relationship” OR “strategies” |
| #5. #1 AND #2 AND #3 AND #4 |
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Fseifes, M.; Etowa, J. The COVID-19 Pandemic and Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) Among Immigrant Women in Canada: A Narrative Review. Women 2024, 4, 480-502. https://doi.org/10.3390/women4040036
AMA Style
Fseifes M, Etowa J. The COVID-19 Pandemic and Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) Among Immigrant Women in Canada: A Narrative Review. Women. 2024; 4(4):480-502. https://doi.org/10.3390/women4040036
Chicago/Turabian StyleFseifes, Manal, and Josephine Etowa. 2024. "The COVID-19 Pandemic and Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) Among Immigrant Women in Canada: A Narrative Review" Women 4, no. 4: 480-502. https://doi.org/10.3390/women4040036
APA StyleFseifes, M., & Etowa, J. (2024). The COVID-19 Pandemic and Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) Among Immigrant Women in Canada: A Narrative Review. Women, 4(4), 480-502. https://doi.org/10.3390/women4040036