Application of Advanced Machine Learning Algorithms to Assess Groundwater Potential Using Remote Sensing-Derived Data
<p>Flowchart of the methodology applied in this research.</p> "> Figure 2
<p>Location of the Hesare-No Basin in Khorasan-e Razavi Province, Iran.</p> "> Figure 3
<p>Topographical driving factors of Hesare-No Basin including: (<b>a</b>) altitude, (<b>b</b>) slope degree, (<b>c</b>) aspect, (<b>d</b>) slope length, (<b>e</b>) plan curvature, (<b>f</b>) profile curvature, and (<b>g</b>) relative slope position.</p> "> Figure 3 Cont.
<p>Topographical driving factors of Hesare-No Basin including: (<b>a</b>) altitude, (<b>b</b>) slope degree, (<b>c</b>) aspect, (<b>d</b>) slope length, (<b>e</b>) plan curvature, (<b>f</b>) profile curvature, and (<b>g</b>) relative slope position.</p> "> Figure 4
<p>Hydrological driving factors of the Hesare-No Basin including (<b>a</b>) distance from rivers, (<b>b</b>) river density, and (<b>c</b>) topographic wetness index.</p> "> Figure 5
<p>Remote sensing (RS)-derived factors including: (<b>a</b>) LULC, (<b>b</b>) Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), (<b>c</b>) distance from lineament, and (<b>d</b>) lineament density.</p> "> Figure 6
<p>Lithology of the study area (symbols are defined in <a href="#remotesensing-12-02742-t002" class="html-table">Table 2</a>).</p> "> Figure 7
<p>Schematic of classification procedure in the k-nearest neighbors algorithm.</p> "> Figure 8
<p>Optimization results of the deep boosting (<b>a</b>) and k-nearest neighbors algorithm (<b>b</b>).</p> "> Figure 9
<p>Distribution of groundwater (GW) potential in the study area based on: (<b>a</b>) logistic model tree, (<b>b</b>) deep boosting, (<b>c</b>) boosted regression trees, (<b>d</b>) k-nearest neighbors, and (<b>e</b>) random forest MLAs.</p> "> Figure 9 Cont.
<p>Distribution of groundwater (GW) potential in the study area based on: (<b>a</b>) logistic model tree, (<b>b</b>) deep boosting, (<b>c</b>) boosted regression trees, (<b>d</b>) k-nearest neighbors, and (<b>e</b>) random forest MLAs.</p> "> Figure 10
<p>Percentage of each class of the GW potential maps constructed by the logistic model tree, deep boosting, boosted regression trees, and k-nearest neighbors.</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. GW Spring Driving Factors
2.2.1. Topographical Driving Factors
Altitude
Slope Degree
Aspect
Slope Length (LS)
Plan and Profile Curvatures
Relative Slope Position (RSP)
2.2.2. Hydrological Driving Factors
Distance from Rivers and River Density (Rd)
Topographic Wetness Index (TWI)
2.2.3. RS-Derived Factors
Satellite Data and Pre-Processing
Generation of Land Use/Land-Cover Classification and Accuracy Assessment
Retrieval of Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)
Distance from Lineament and Lineament Density
2.2.4. Lithology
2.3. Machine Learning Algorithms
2.3.1. Logistic Model Tree
2.3.2. Deep Boosting
2.3.3. Boosted Regression Trees
2.3.4. K-Nearest Neighbors
2.3.5. Random Forest
2.4. Validation of the Algorithms
3. Results
3.1. Machine Learning Algorithm Parameter Optimization Results
3.2. Validation of Maps and Performance Analysis of the Algorithms
3.3. GW Potential Maps
3.4. Importance of Factors
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Indices | Classification Algorithm | ||
---|---|---|---|
Maximum Likelihood | Neural Network | Decision Tree | |
Overall Accuracy (%) | 87 | 88 | 91 |
Kappa Coefficient (%) | 76 | 78 | 82 |
Geology Group | Description | Age |
---|---|---|
Jmz | Grey thick-bedded limestone and dolomite (Mozduran formation) | Middle-Late Jurassic |
Jd | Well-bedded to thin-bedded, greenish-grey argillaceous limestone with intercalations of calcareous shale (Dalichai formation) | Jurassic |
PlQc | Fluvial conglomerate, Piedmont conglomerate, and sandstone | Pliocene-Quaternary |
Jl | Light grey, thin-bedded to massive limestone (Lar formation) | Jurassic-Cretaceous |
Qft2 | Low level piedmont fan and valley terrace deposits | Quaternary |
Ea.bvt | Andesitic to basaltic volcanic tuff | Eocene |
PlQdv | Rhyolitic to Rhyodacitic volcanics | Pliocene-Quaternary |
Jph | Phyllite, slate, and meta-sandstone (Hamadan Phyllites) | Jurassic |
E3c | Conglomerate and sandstone | Eocene |
E2sht | Tuffaceous shale and tuff | Eocene |
E2m | Pale red marl, gypsiferous marl, and limestone | Eocene |
Mur | Red marl, gypsiferous marl, sandstone, and conglomerate (Upper Red formation) | Miocene |
Pz | Undifferentiated lower Paleozoic rocks | Early Palaeozoic |
Osh | Greenish-grey siltstone and shale with intercalations of flaggy limestone (Shirgesht formation) | Ordovician |
Eav | Andesitic volcanics | Middle Eocene |
Indices | Logistic Model Tree | Deep Boosting | Boosted Regression Trees | K-Nearest Neighbors | Random Forest |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Accuracy | 0.8387 | 0.8118 | 0.8065 | 0.7581 | 0.8010 |
Kappa | 0.6774 | 0.6237 | 0.6129 | 0.5161 | 0.6022 |
ROC (%) | 87.813 | 87.807 | 87.397 | 76.708 | 86.466 |
Sensitivity | 0.7849 | 0.7527 | 0.7957 | 0.7742 | 0.7750 |
Specificity | 0.8925 | 0.8710 | 0.8172 | 0.7419 | 0.8270 |
Mean Rank | p-Value (α = 0.05) | χ2 (Chi-Square) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Logistic Model Tree | Deep Boosting | Boosted Regression Trees | K-Nearest Neighbors | Random Forest | ||
4.80 | 3.40 | 3.20 | 1.20 | 2.40 | 0.007 | 14.08 |
Model/Class | Low | Moderate | High | Very High | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Logistic model tree | Range | 0–0.11 | 0.11–0.37 | 0.37–0.70 | 0.70–1 |
Area (km2) | 371.02 | 169 | 79.22 | 92.9 | |
Deep boosting | Range | 0.02–0.27 | 0.27–0.43 | 0.43–0.60 | 0.60–0.98 |
Area (km2) | 230.23 | 277.32 | 141.73 | 62.83 | |
Boosted regression trees | Range | 0.09–0.21 | 0.21–0.39 | 0.39–0.62 | 0.62–0.89 |
Area (km2) | 342.25 | 172.48 | 109.87 | 87.44 | |
K-nearest neighbors | Range | 0–0.04 | 0.04–0.42 | 0.42–0.71 | 0.71–1 |
Area (km2) | 220.9 | 280.68 | 99.8 | 110.77 | |
Random forest | Range | 0–0.16 | 0.16–0.36 | 0.36–0.61 | 0.61–1 |
Area (km2) | 315.06 | 198.71 | 124.42 | 73.93 |
Factor | Boosted Regression Trees (Relative Influence) | K-Nearest Neighbors | Random Forest(Mean Decrease Gini) | Logistic Model Tree |
---|---|---|---|---|
NDVI | 100 | 100 | 41.973 | 100 |
Distance from rivers | 16.03 | 46.073 | 16.57 | 46.07 |
Altitude | 20.73 | 43.473 | 19.492 | 43.473 |
RSP | 17.47 | 37.202 | 18.109 | 37.202 |
Profile curvature | 5.25 | 33.501 | 10.12 | 33.501 |
Distance from lineament | 2.558 | 33.424 | 10.77 | 33.424 |
Lineament density | 0 | 32.108 | 8.862 | 32.108 |
Land use-cover | 18.26 | 17.034 | 17.02 | 29.146 |
Plan curvature | 1.038 | 26.539 | 9.017 | 26.539 |
TWI | 3.17 | 23.34 | 9.923 | 23.34 |
River density | 1.288 | 17.602 | 7.263 | 17.602 |
Lithology | 4.949 | 7.749 | 8.758 | 10.371 |
Slope length | 0.105 | 8.372 | 6.423 | 8.372 |
Slope degree | 1.835 | 4.051 | 6.623 | 4.051 |
Aspect | 0.285 | 0 | 3.002 | 0 |
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Kamali Maskooni, E.; Naghibi, S.A.; Hashemi, H.; Berndtsson, R. Application of Advanced Machine Learning Algorithms to Assess Groundwater Potential Using Remote Sensing-Derived Data. Remote Sens. 2020, 12, 2742. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12172742
Kamali Maskooni E, Naghibi SA, Hashemi H, Berndtsson R. Application of Advanced Machine Learning Algorithms to Assess Groundwater Potential Using Remote Sensing-Derived Data. Remote Sensing. 2020; 12(17):2742. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12172742
Chicago/Turabian StyleKamali Maskooni, Ehsan, Seyed Amir Naghibi, Hossein Hashemi, and Ronny Berndtsson. 2020. "Application of Advanced Machine Learning Algorithms to Assess Groundwater Potential Using Remote Sensing-Derived Data" Remote Sensing 12, no. 17: 2742. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12172742
APA StyleKamali Maskooni, E., Naghibi, S. A., Hashemi, H., & Berndtsson, R. (2020). Application of Advanced Machine Learning Algorithms to Assess Groundwater Potential Using Remote Sensing-Derived Data. Remote Sensing, 12(17), 2742. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs12172742