Open AccessArticle

Integrating Students’ Real-Time Gaze in Teacher–Student Interactions: Case Studies on the Benefits and Challenges of Eye Tracking in Primary Education

Raimundo da Silva Soares, Jr.

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Eneyse Dayane Pinheiro

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Amanda Yumi Ambriola Oku

Marilia Biscaia Rizzo

Carolinne das Neves Vieira

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João Ricardo Sato

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D’Or Institute for Research and Education, Rio de Janeiro 22281-100, Brazil

Center of Mathematics, Computing, and Cognition, Universidade Federal do ABC, Santo André 09280-560, Brazil

School of Education, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA

Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(23), 11007; https://doi.org/10.3390/app142311007

Submission received: 1 October 2024 / Revised: 21 November 2024 / Accepted: 22 November 2024 / Published: 27 November 2024

(This article belongs to the Special Issue ICT in Education, 2nd Edition)

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Abstract

Integrating neuroscience techniques, such as eye tracking, into educational practices has opened new avenues for understanding the cognitive processes underlying learning. This study investigates the feasibility and practicality of using eye tracking as a supportive tool for educators in primary school settings. By taking into account eye-tracking features in lesson plans and instruction, this study explores the benefits and challenges of this technology from teachers’ perspective. The findings reveal that eye tracking can enhance interactivity, maintain student attention, and provide immediate feedback, thereby aiding in identifying student difficulties that may otherwise go unnoticed. However, the study also highlights concerns related to technical complexities, data privacy, and the need for teacher training to utilize and interpret eye-tracking data effectively. These insights contribute to a nuanced understanding of how eye-tracking technology can be implemented in educational settings, offering potential pathways for personalized teaching and improved learning outcomes.

Keywords:

eye tracking; gaze; educational technologies; education; neuroscience

1. Introduction

1.1. Background and Motivation

In 1978, Vygotsky et al. introduced the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which refers to “the space between what a student can achieve independently and what they can accomplish with the help of a teacher or a more experienced peer” [1]. This theory emphasizes the importance of social interaction in learning, suggesting that appropriate support can lead students to higher levels of understanding. Applying ZPD principles can be seen in collaborative learning, where students work together to solve problems, exchange ideas, and learn from each other. Additionally, constant and constructive feedback is crucial, allowing students to recognize their mistakes and make the necessary adjustments [2]. Another important concept he brought up is differentiation in teaching. Each student has a unique pace and learning style. Recognizing this diversity and adapting teaching strategies to meet individual needs is essential for promoting an inclusive and effective learning environment.

Recently, technological advances have introduced neuroscience techniques into education, uncovering associations between brain function, teaching, and learning [3,4]. One of these techniques is eye tracking, which has also been utilized in user interface assessment and multimedia learning evaluation [5,6,7,8]. Assessing gaze behavior and utilizing gaze points as evaluation markers have been extensively researched in the literature, yielding promising findings [9,10]. Such findings include instances of significant contributions to reading comprehension [11,12] and solving mathematical problems [13,14], among other areas of interest in education [15,16]. Nevertheless, only a few studies use this technique to evaluate content used in the earliest stages of education [7]. In addition, it is challenging to suggest directly applying these methods in a school setting to support teaching practices through collaborations between teachers and researchers.

1.1.1. Uses of Eye Tracking in Educational Research

Recent educational research has increasingly utilized eye-tracking technology to examine and enhance individual learners’ engagement and cognitive processes related to learning [17]. In the field of education, eye tracking technology has primarily been used to analyze reading behavior [11,12], mathematics learning [13,14], multimedia learning [5,7], and visual attention [18,19,20]. Most of these studies have investigated various aspects of visual attention, including fixation counts, the frequency with which gaze is directed toward an area of interest (AOI), and fixation duration, which indicates the time a fixation is allocated to an AOI. Finally, the patterns of eye movements are known as visual scanpaths, which record eye movement trajectories consisting of a series of fixations and saccades while viewing a visual stimulus. This metric is reported as a valuable measurement for understanding the relationship between eye movement patterns and visual attention among individuals [21]. All these metrics serve as indicators for analyzing cognitive processes during the learning process.

Some studies have investigated how learner characteristics mediate visual attentional behaviors during the learning process, utilizing scanpath data for analysis. For example, Hyönä et al. (2002) identified that readers performed better on reading comprehension tasks when presented with materials with a clear topic structure [22]. A comparative study investigated the reading behaviors of average and poor readers in the context of digital books [23]. By analyzing gaze transitions, the study revealed that poor readers engaged in more extensive visual exploration of highlighted text and demonstrated a higher frequency of transitions between text and illustrations. Conversely, this pattern was not evident among average readers, suggesting differing strategies in visual attention and engagement with digital content. Taken together, the findings underscore the significance of analyzing eye movement trajectories in educational research and give a direction for eye-tracking applications in the classroom.

Eye tracking has frequently been used in highly controlled laboratory settings [17]. Consequently, it is essential to conduct studies to identify scanpath metric utilization that could be applied in the classroom. It is imperative to investigate the advancements in eye-tracking technologies and their potential integration into everyday educational practices and naturalistic learning environments.

1.1.2. Current State of Eye-Tracking Technology in Educational Environments

Several studies indicate that applying eye-tracking techniques can significantly enhance the educational experience outside the laboratory [6,8,13]. However, research also indicates differences in gaze behavior between static trackers used in laboratories and portable alternatives tested in real-world settings [24,25]. Considering naturalistic applications, Jung et al. (2018) examined schoolchildren’s learning and visual interactions within a science museum by employing a mobile eye tracker [26]. This device comprised eyeglasses with integrated cameras, enabling the capture of the environmental context and gaze behavior. The findings from this study illustrate that mobile eye tracking can effectively measure learners’ attention and engagement, ultimately improving the design of educational resources. Another study employed a mobile eye tracker to investigate the attentional focus of children aged 6 to 8 years during a robotic education activity over a six-month period [27]. The eye-tracking results showed that children exhibited increased engagement with the robotic education activities and showed enhanced information processing speed. This research underscores the role of eye-tracking data in evaluating the efficacy of interactive learning environments.

Regarding eye tracking teaching applications, training methods employing experts’ fixation points to guide the gaze patterns (scanpaths) of novice participants have demonstrated their effectiveness over traditional training approaches [28,29,30]. For example, Causer et al. (2014) compared traditional technical training to quiet eye training for surgical residents learning one-handed square knot tying. Both groups improved, but the quiet eye training group maintained performance despite heightened anxiety. This group also showed more efficient gaze and hand movements after training than the traditional group [29]. Another study demonstrated that proficient medical students could identify areas of interest (AOI) for diagnostic imaging more rapidly than their novice counterparts [31]. The same study also showed that training novice students resulted in a shift in gaze patterns and increased fixations on AOIs relevant to diagnosis [31]. These findings, coupled with similar studies [32,33,34,35], indicate that the pattern of image viewing differs as students acquire the ability to identify areas of interest crucial for result interpretation. Accordingly, some studies advocate for the use of eye-tracking data to showcase the gaze replay of experienced students to aid novice students in learning to comprehend and interpret texts and images [5,6,36,37].

Considering the possibility of applying eye tracking in education, our research group conducted a primary school study to gather teachers’ opinions on the relevance of using eye movement data from students who were solving mathematical problems [38]. The results showed that the teachers found eye tracking relevant for research and understanding student cognition and as an educational tool that could be used in the classroom. According to the teachers’ reports, the students’ eye movement data can help identify difficulties that students may have trouble expressing [38]. This application appears beneficial in one-on-one interactions between teachers and students, as it can enhance teaching by providing information that allows immediate feedback [39,40].

While the potential relevance of eye tracking in the domain of education is evident, it is imperative to conduct a comprehensive exploration of the intricacies of this tool to discern its merits and demerits as an educational instrument. Furthermore, gaining a more profound understanding of the disciplines that could benefit from this application’s utilization is necessary. To further this matter, we asked teachers experienced with eye-tracking applications to create lessons adapted to their respective subjects for preschool students, who were being monitored with eye tracking during the lesson and interacting with the teachers with real-time gaze estimation being shown to the teacher.

1.1.3. Purpose and Objectives

This study addressed two key concerns: (1) What are the main benefits and challenges entailed in utilizing eye tracking as a supporting tool for educators to develop lesson plans and manage instructional resources during instruction? (2) How can the practical observations conducted in this activity contribute to applying eye tracking in educational contexts? Therefore, this research aims to investigate the feasibility of eye tracking in one-on-one classes across different disciplines. Through this approach, we seek to gain insights into the benefits and difficulties of developing class materials and using instructional equipment to understand how eye tracking could benefit educational settings. To the best of our knowledge, this work represents the first attempt to integrate teachers’ perspectives on students’ real-time gaze data to guide instruction during class.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Participants

The data acquisition of this study was approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee of the Federal University of ABC region (UFABC). All adult participants signed an informed consent term, the students’ parents signed an authorization consent, and all children signed an assent document. No participant received any financial compensation, according to the federal regulations. The recruitment was conducted in a private school in São Paulo with medium-high socioeconomic status. The healthy students were volunteers from third to fifth grade (from 8 to 11 years old). All participants had normal or corrected-to-normal vision and did not report present or previous neurological or psychiatric conditions. All data acquisition occurred at school, and the children were already familiar with the teachers from previous interactions, allowing for more ecological validity in this study.

Four teachers experienced in school classrooms (coauthors A.Y.A.O., M.B.R., E.D.P. and C.N.V.) and having formal backgrounds in Mathematics, Geography, Primary Education, and Natural Sciences, respectively, participated in this study. The mathematics teacher, A.Y.A.O., holds a degree in mathematics education with a specialization in teaching methodologies and a Ph.D. in engineering. Her research focuses on graph theory and education, making her knowledgeable about graph theory’s theoretical and practical applications and pedagogical aspects. The Computational Thinking teacher, E.D.P., is a master’s student in Neuroscience and Cognition, with a degree in Pedagogy. Her research centers on pedagogical practices in diverse and inclusive school contexts, mathematics in elementary education, and cognitive neuroscience. The Geography teacher, M.B.R., holds a degree in Geography from the University of São Paulo and a postgraduate degree in Neuroscience applied to education. Her research emphasizes cognitive neuroscience and education. She has over ten years of experience teaching geography. The Biology teacher, C.N.V., possesses a degree in Pedagogy and Natural Sciences. She currently works as a tutor in a psychopedagogy clinic and is pursuing a master’s degree at the School of Education, University of Wisconsin–Madison. All teachers were familiar with eye-tracking technology and gaze interpretation. Each teacher interacted with six students, presenting the same lesson on her topic of expertise.

2.2. Educational Interactional Activities

Case Study 1—Mathematics (A.Y.A.O.)

The Königsberg problem is a landmark in the history of mathematics. The River Pregel runs through the city of Königsberg, which includes two islands connected by seven bridges. The challenge was determining whether it was possible to cross all the bridges so that each was crossed only once. By simplifying this problem into a mathematical network, Leonhard Euler demonstrated that such a traversal was impossible. This work laid the foundation for Graph Theory and Topology. Inspired by the Königsberg problem, our experiment, designed for third- to fifth-graders (ages 8 to 11 years), involved creating a series of floor plans. We asked the students to apply Euler’s findings to see if they could navigate through each unit, passing through each door no more than once. The lesson was designed to introduce a new topic to the students involving spatial visualization and logical reasoning in solving the proposed problems. Specifically, the concept of paths was explored. Various challenges were presented, and the students had to establish paths between images so that the vertices were not repeated. After introducing the concept, the students had to analyze several proposed problems and evaluate which ones had a solution.

Figure 1 shows an activity in which the students were asked to trace a path that covers all the edges without repeating any path. Challenge A involves an image where students must reproduce the path without repeating any edges. However, challenge B was designed to be only possible to solve with repeating edges, prompting students to recognize and analyze why the task cannot be completed as instructed. This required careful evaluation of all the vertices in the drawing, encouraging students to apply their understanding of graph theory and logical reasoning to determine whether a solution is possible.

By engaging students with problems that require spatial visualization and logical reasoning, the lesson helps develop critical thinking skills and problem-solving abilities. These skills are essential in mathematics and real-world situations where logical decision making and strategic planning are necessary. Additionally, using an eye tracker, the experiment can reveal how students process new information and approach problem solving, providing insights that can enhance teaching methods.

Case Study 2—Computational Thinking (E.D.P.)

We presented the coding lesson on a laptop to the students wearing a remote eye-tracking system. During this activity, students used a specific programming language with graphical representation (blocks, see Figure 2).

The children were instructed to complete the tasks proposed by the game (https://studio.code.org/s/mc/lessons/1/levels/1, accessed on 1 December 2023). The game’s main objective is to teach basic programming concepts in an engaging and interactive way. Tasks involve building simple algorithms using blocks of code representing different commands, such as moving forward, turning, or performing specific actions within the game. This visual interface is particularly effective in helping students understand the logic behind programming without the complexity of traditional coding syntax.

During the experiment, we used eye-tracking technology to observe the screen presented to the children, their mouse movements, and gaze direction (visual scanpath). Based on these observations, we carried out targeted and personalized mediation.

A typical example of mediation occurred when a child had difficulty moving the character. The mediation could start with questions stimulating reflection, such as: “Where do you want the character to go? Which block do you think can help with this movement?” Another example was in sequences of commands. If the child could not organize the sequence of blocks correctly, the teacher could ask, “Let us think together. First, what does the character need to do? And then?”

Case Study 3—Geography (M.B.R.)

A colored printed version of the thematic map “Distribution of Soybean across Different Biomes (2016)” (IBGE) was selected as the instructional resource for the Geography lesson (Figure 3). The map depicted cities’ soybean production within various Brazilian biomes in 2016. The students were initially introduced to the map, followed by a series of questions of increasing complexity.

The first question was solely based on the map’s theme, while the second and third questions required interpretation of the dual information presented on the map. For example, the first question was “What is the theme of the map?” and the second was “Which Brazilian biomes are most affected by soy?” The fourth question prompted students to relate the map’s information to their prior knowledge of deforestation. These questions were designed to evaluate student comprehension and enhance their ability to read and interpret maps effectively. This implies that in answering the initial question regarding the map’s theme, the student needed to grasp the subject of the map based on the information provided by its title and legend. The efficacy of this approach was validated through student responses, and when responses differed from expectations, mediation was tailored to individual difficulties and needs.

Case Study 4—Biology (C.N.V.)

The activity focused on understanding the concepts of food chains and food webs. This theme was chosen because the students had not previously seen it and because of the pathways provided. The figures of food chains and webs could more easily capture their attention while interacting with questions made by the teacher.

First, for each student, a simple food chain was presented to briefly explain the concept and illustrate the fundamental relations among different organisms (Figure 4). In the following, a more complex food web was introduced, incorporating a wider variety of organisms. Questions were then posed about the trophic levels of each organism, their roles within the ecosystem, and how they were interconnected. These questions were not pre-established, allowing for individual development and tailored guidance based on each student’s progress through the activity. This approach could facilitate the elaboration of more practical questions and mediation strategies, ensuring that each student’s unique comprehension and perspective were more easily addressed.

The activity lasted approximately 12 to 15 min and included five prepared figures for students to explore. However, the number of figures each child viewed and developed depended on their individual progress. While some students only reached the second figure, others advanced further, with a maximum of four figures explored by some students. This flexible approach helped identify the most effective questions and teaching strategies, addressing each student’s unique understanding and perspective. Additionally, it encouraged critical thinking and a deeper comprehension of ecological relationships, making the learning experience more engaging and effective.

2.3. Instrumentation

The real-time gaze estimation via eye tracking was performed using two systems. A remote system for gaze estimation of points presented on a laptop screen (Gazepoing HD 150 Hz, binocular; Microsoft Surface Studio laptop, 14.4 inches) was used in Biology and Computational Thinking lessons. The real-time gaze was not visible to the student as it was only displayed to the teacher on an extended screen (15 inches). The second system was wearable glasses (ETvision System, 180 Hz binocular wearable glasses Argus Science, Tyngsborough, MA, USA) for the Geography and Mathematics lesson. Analogously, the real-time gaze estimation was only available to the teacher.

3. Results

3.1. Summary of the Teachers’ Testimony

Each teacher filled a structured form exploring different perspectives of their experience. The remarkable diversity of opinions and perceptions among the teachers was notable. These differences likely arose from the varied backgrounds in their respective fields, the lesson content, the resources utilized, and the intrinsic dynamics of each discipline. Notwithstanding this heterogeneity, all four teachers concurred that implementing eye tracking to provide real-time gaze in educational interactions holds significant merit. Each asserted that eye tracking was undeniably beneficial and facilitated interaction with the students.

A second point of consensus among the four teachers was that they, indeed, could identify the main targets of visual attention. They stated that this feature could be useful for identifying periods of students’ difficulties, confusion, and uncertainties. Thus, they could immediately intervene and provide more guided, direct, and precise feedback to support the student. This may help to keep the student’s attention and engagement. One teacher wrote: “I could perceive when the students’ gaze was deviating from where I would like it to be. So I could bring it back by saying some words or using the mouse pointer so they could better identify the important targets”.

In addition, there were differences in the figure analysis and reading patterns depending on the student’s age. The teachers mentioned that they could observe the attention spent on each different visual information provided as well as the students’ engagement. Moreover, the teachers commented that they could also infer distractions, curiosity, and confidence in the students’ answers to inquiry. Quickly noticing the student’s distraction and providing immediate intervention was also useful.

It was reported that using one-to-one (teacher–student) real-time gaze to investigate educational resources that can be later used in the classroom (thus without eye tracking, in a one-teacher-to-many-student scenario) is also relevant. The teachers mentioned that this investigation could help them adjust the resource design and the difficulty level of the questions. The insights provided could support the design of clearer examples and offer more rich interactions.

Furthermore, they mentioned that there are situations in which understanding students’ main difficulties is very helpful in identifying how to use different strategies. Moreover, they also see great potential in inclusive education (emphasizing nonverbal students or cases of Autism Spectrum Disorder).

Finally, all teachers highlighted individualized interaction as a characteristic of a good lesson with real-time gaze.

3.2. Teachers’ Comments About Their Experience of Teaching with a Real-Time Gaze

Case Study 1—Mathematics perspectives [A.Y.A.O.]

Participating in this experience was truly enriching. From the beginning of the activity with one child, I felt a mix of curiosity and excitement. The eye tracker showed me where her visual attention was concentrated as she followed the paths on the paper, allowing me to identify the areas where she had more ease and where she encountered obstacles.

It was as if I could see the world through the eyes of each child I interacted with, understanding their points of interest or difficulty. At times, I noticed that some children would divert their gaze at certain points instead of following the paths. Through the screen, I could see when the concepts of the activity were not clear. This immediate perception allowed me to dynamically adapt my teaching approach, clarifying difficulties at the moment they arose.

The ability to adapt the lesson in real time was one of the most valuable aspects of this experiment. I could adjust my pace and explain concepts differently according to the child’s reactions captured by the eye tracker. When I noticed a child was interested and focused on a specific part of the graph, I took the opportunity to deepen that concept. Conversely, when I noticed a distraction or difficulty, I rephrased my explanations or provided additional examples until the child demonstrated understanding. I felt that this direct and adaptive interaction facilitated the child’s learning and gave me a deeper and more empathetic understanding of how she perceived the activity. The eye tracker was a powerful tool to enrich the educational process, making it a truly interactive and personalized experience. However, having more degrees of freedom in a lesson can be challenging.

The main challenge in this experience was controlling the urge to respond or intervene with the student prematurely or point out errors immediately without giving space for the students to test themselves. It was necessary to give the child time to assimilate the content and find their own solutions. Another difficulty was creating an appropriate learning environment. A lesson with eye tracking should have clear visual elements for analysis, such as graphs or written problems, but it should not contain too many distinct stimuli or excessive graphics, as this can confuse and distract the students. Additionally, a noisy environment can make students seek neutral areas, such as white walls, to concentrate, making eye tracking less useful. During the lesson, I noticed that some students expected me to intervene to correct errors instead of asking directly, knowing that I could perceive their difficulties. This brought a new dynamic to the class, where students felt observed and reluctant to express themselves openly. This phenomenon can reduce verbal interactions, making students more passive.

My experience with eye tracking was much better than I expected. The precision level of the equipment was surprising, and the students quickly adapted to it during the first contact without finding the notebook or glasses strange. This allowed me to plan activities with more confidence, adjusting the difficulty level of the exercises and proposing more interactive dialogues where students could suggest problems in addition to solving them.

I believe that eye tracking can significantly improve my classes, offering fairer assessments and identifying the students’ real needs and demands. However, it is crucial to use it in specific situations to respect students’ privacy and avoid reducing verbal interactions. I would particularly use eye tracking in activities that require a detailed analysis of thought processes and problem solving, especially for students with learning difficulties.

Case Study 2—Computational Thinking perspectives [E.D.P.]

Incorporating eye-tracking technology into my class did not present many challenges. The integration process was relatively smooth, which I attribute to several factors, such as the ease of use of the technology and the comprehensive support provided by the manufacturers.

One of the main considerations for successfully implementing this technique in the classroom, especially with younger elementary school students, is keeping their attention. Children often have difficulty focusing on a specific visual field for extended periods, which is crucial for effective eye tracking. Therefore, I consider it important that lessons incorporating eye tracking are visually appealing, well-organized, interactive, and offer varied stimuli. This approach helps keep students engaged and prevents them from feeling fatigued.

It is also essential to ensure that sessions have an appropriate duration to maintain their comfort and interest. Additionally, it is fundamental to personalize the content to meet individual learning needs while respecting students’ privacy. On the other hand, certain characteristics should be avoided during this type of lesson, such as the possibility of overwhelming students with excessive visual stimuli, which can become counterproductive. There must be a balance between the visual information presented and the student’s ability to process it effectively. Adapting to the individual needs of students without stigmatizing them is essential, as is ensuring the ethical implementation of the technology and prioritizing their well-being.

During the implementation, some unexpected challenges arose. For example, the type of glasses some students wore interfered with the calibration of the eye-tracking equipment. Additionally, factors such as students’ height and individual eye characteristics posed calibration difficulties. However, after several attempts and adjustments to the equipment, students’ postures, and seating arrangements, these issues were resolved, and the lesson proceeded smoothly.

Overall, the technology provided clear insights into whether students were paying attention and understanding the instructions given throughout the lesson. This real-time feedback was very beneficial for quickly adjusting my teaching methods and better meeting students’ needs. It allowed me to identify more clearly when a student was confused about a concept or section of the lesson. For example, in a coding lesson, I could see where a student struggled with a specific block of code, allowing me to provide targeted assistance.

I do not foresee major disadvantages in using eye tracking in my classes. The potential for any negative impact seems more related to the teacher’s correct application of the technology and the design of the lesson itself. Ensuring that the equipment is used appropriately and that lessons are structured to make the most of this technology is crucial. I prefer eye-tracking technology in specific situations rather than in all lessons.

In my view, the most valuable application is understanding the difficulties faced by students with academic problems. For example, if a student consistently performs poorly, eye tracking can help determine if their problems are related to attention and concentration. This insight could inform adjustments in my teaching approach to better capture their attention and improve their understanding of the material.

Observing students using the technology revealed some interesting characteristics. They were visibly attentive to the information presented and seemed comfortable and enthusiastic about participating in the new experience. This positive response suggests that integrating innovative technologies such as this can increase engagement and interest in the classroom.

Case Study 3—Geography perspectives [M.B.R.]

While participating in the experience of adapting a class using the eye-tracking device and having access to real-time data, some challenges arose. These included adjusting the device to each child, positioning it properly, adapting the material to be used in the lesson so that it would be effective when used alongside the eye-tracking device, and positioning such material in a way that made data collection feasible and effective while the student interacted with it.

When designing a lesson with eye tracking, it is important to include materials, such as an image or a map, that are clear to the teacher beforehand and that point out which students should focus on. Upon receiving feedback on where the student was looking, the teacher can decide if it is necessary to intervene to ensure the focus remains on what was previously identified as relevant for successful learning. At the same time, a lecture-style class where there is no student interaction with the presented content and it is unclear which focal points are relevant to the learning process, in my view, it would not be the best choice for a lesson using this tool.

Despite the planning, during the lesson, it became apparent that the material, in this case, a map, showed landscape orientation, which made it difficult for the student to interact, so it became necessary to show its portrait orientation. This change, in a way, made the process a bit uncomfortable.

Another point observed was that, during mediation, my focus shifted from the screen showing real-time where the student was looking to seeking direct eye contact, that is, direct teacher–student interaction. Perhaps this behavior of directly seeking signs from the student for more effective intervention is justified by my teaching experience.

After experiencing the lesson with the instrument, I think an eye-tracking lesson becomes very interesting when the goal is research, and the data will be analyzed at a different time than the lesson itself. This tool did not seem very relevant to me when the goal is direct teacher–student activity mediation. During the lesson, the real-time feedback of where the student was looking divided my attention between looking at the screen and observing the student’s body language (an important characteristic to explore for one more efficient meditation), which disrupted and overloaded me.

After experiencing the eye-tracking task, for the next lesson, I would design a complex activity but divide it into several simple steps to monitor the student’s progress and then finish with another similar activity without such division. In my view, using eye tracking in my lessons would allow me to quickly notice which students are looking at irrelevant points so I could redirect their attention to the important focal point of the lesson.

The results could also provide specific information for a more emphatic lesson on certain points, help identify distractors, and even infer and predict some difficulties. The downside is that using the tool could divide my attention between the obtained data and reading the student, not only causing overload but also possibly resulting in less efficient mediation.

Although it provides relevant data, I would use eye tracking in all classes if I were working with atypical students or students with some communication difficulty/disability, as well as in situations where, even after various types and attempts of mediation, I would not reach success in teaching and learning. I think these are situations where the tool would become fundamental to the teaching and learning process of these students.

During the eye-tracking lesson, I observed that some students read all the alternatives of a response as generally instructed by teachers, but not all have the same behavior; I also observed that the reading pattern of the map related to the activity changes according to age group, and this change is related to the time spent and the focal points on the map; I noticed that in the last question, a map was present, but the answer to the question was not on it and instead required other knowledge from the student. Nonetheless, the tool showed that the students spent a considerable amount of time analyzing the map. From this last point, it was possible to deduce how well these students mastered the presented content.

Participating in a class that involved eye tracking brought some challenges and discoveries, as outlined previously. Such a tool becomes interesting and greatly contributes to research purposes; however, I do not see its direct use in crowded classrooms with typical students. Moreover, my academic training and experience in education have provided knowledge for more efficient mediation that reaches most students in the school. Therefore, while the tool would offer some contributions, it could overload the teacher by dividing their attention. However, I believe that a class with eye tracking would make a great contribution for atypical students and students with communication difficulties, or even those for whom different types of mediation are ineffective.

Case Study 4—Biology perspective [C.N.V.]

Adapting a classroom to incorporate eye-tracking technology presented several unique challenges. Traditional teaching methods often involve a one-way transfer of knowledge, where the teacher speaks, and the students passively listen and attempt to memorize the information. However, for eye tracking to be effective, lessons must be designed to observe changes in students’ visual attention. This means creating opportunities for students to think, respond, and ask questions, as well as incorporating more interactive elements and visual cues.

The primary challenge lies in preparing lessons that align with the principles of eye tracking. Additionally, the need to pivot and adopt different strategies if the initial approach is not working requires significant preparation and flexibility from the teacher. A lesson utilizing eye-tracking technology should be interactive, incorporating moments when students are encouraged to think and respond. It should include plenty of images to establish visual targets and allow observation of the points that capture students’ attention. Furthermore, it should provide opportunities for students to speak, enabling the observation of how they construct and articulate their thoughts.

Conversely, an eye-tracking lesson should avoid being entirely lecture-based when the teacher continuously speaks without providing moments for students to reflect and understand on their own. A lesson dominated by the teacher’s guidance does not lend itself to meaningful eye-tracking observations without allowing students to develop their own thought processes.

During my experience, several unplanned occurrences influenced the course of the lesson. For example, after working with three students, I noticed their focus decreased when I included a less critical part of the concept. Consequently, I chose to omit this section for subsequent students, which seemed to enhance their engagement and overall experience. Additionally, I found that minimizing mouse pointer usage during the initial explanation of the food chain concept allowed me to detect shifts in students’ visual attention better, leading me to adjust my strategy accordingly.

My experience using eye-tracking technology during the lesson exceeded my expectations. Having previously utilized eye tracking in data collection for research, I was aware of its potential to provide insights into how students think and process information. However, delivering a lesson while observing real-time eye-tracking data was surprising in terms of how much it allowed me to adapt and intervene in the teaching process. Based on this experience, I would plan future lessons to be even more interactive, incorporating more images and possibly small texts or keywords within those images.

Eye-tracking technology identifies anchor points that hold students’ attention and areas confusing, aiding in preparing more focused and distraction-free lessons. It also enhances teacher–student interaction, allowing for questions that guide students in understanding both the content and their own confusion, ultimately helping them organize their thoughts and articulate their doubts.

One potential drawback of eye-tracking technology is the challenge of simultaneously presenting content and monitoring students’ eye movements. Thus, extensive teacher training is essential for effective implementation. I believe eye-tracking technology should be used selectively rather than in every lesson. Educational research often falls into the trap of believing a single methodology or tool can universally solve all problems. Like any tool, eye-tracking technology can be highly beneficial in specific contexts. However, it may not yield significant results in others—the dynamic nature of teaching benefits from a variety of strategies, leveraging the strengths of each. Therefore, I would advocate for eye-tracking technology in specific situations where its benefits are most evident. Each student’s individuality and unique needs mean that while eye tracking may significantly benefit some, it may not be as helpful for others.

Initially, I would use it with all students to identify those who can benefit most from the technology. Subsequently, I would continue using it only with those students for whom it proves advantageous. Observing students using eye-tracking technology revealed diverse characteristics. Some students moved their eyes rapidly and shifted their focus frequently, spending little time on each image. Others followed along closely with my explanations, aligning their gaze with each point I made. Some students traced paths with their eyes to find answers, such as following arrows to identify secondary consumers in a food chain, while others focused solely on the illustrations. Confident students often scanned the visuals once and responded quickly, whereas less confident students repeatedly checked and rechecked the images.

I would certainly recommend eye-tracking technology to colleagues teaching the same discipline. It provides valuable insights and helps guide students in constructing their knowledge. Various disciplines could benefit from eye-tracking technology, each finding its unique application to enhance learning outcomes. Therefore, teachers must be well-prepared with different tools and strategies to best support their students’ development.

4. Discussion

The present study investigated the feasibility of utilizing eye tracking for real-time gaze estimation as a supportive tool for educators. Through pragmatic observation of the advantages and challenges encountered in preparing the class and handling instructional equipment, we presented teachers’ perspectives in an effort to obtain valuable insights into the potential application of eye tracking in educational settings. Previous research has indicated the potential use of eye-tracking technology in educational settings [6,36,39,41]. However, this study takes a step further by suggesting that teachers could incorporate this technology with their students and share their perspectives on the practicality of using data from students’ eye movements during classes. Teacher comments indicate specific instances in which eye tracking can be beneficial, such as immediately identifying when students are attentive or experiencing confusion during class.

Eye tracking is becoming a widespread method and is expected to become even more prevalent in the future, given the advancements in technology [42]. Deep learning approaches are enabling the development of systems that can inform researchers about where and on what a user’s gaze is focused at any given time [43]. This has been particularly useful in webcam-based scientific experiments and user research [44,45]. By filtering out noise and addressing tracking losses, AI-enabled tools have the potential to enhance the quality of eye-tracking data, highlighting key gaze patterns relevant to analysis [45]. Previous studies have reported gaze accuracy between 3° and 4° using the most effective WebGazer model [46]. Additionally, similar methods have been implemented on mobile phones [47] and tablets [48], driven by advancements in selfie cameras and application-specific integrated circuits on these devices. Such advances in technology expand the possibility of broader applications in schools.

One of the key benefits of using this technology in class is the immediate feedback it provides. This feedback can support the teacher, mainly when students cannot clearly communicate where or when they require further information to excel in the given task. Therefore, teachers could find value in using eye-tracking data to improve instruction during classes. In the context of instruction, valuable information can be imparted to educators to aid in explaining complex subject matter during instructional sessions. Among the pedagogical techniques frequently deliberated in education, scaffolding has emerged as a prominent strategy, given its propensity to foster a constructive mode of engagement [35,40]. The scaffolding method is deeply associated with interactions, and recent empirical evidence has shown that scaffolding facilitates generative learning [49,50], allowing instructors to provide support based on learners’ immediate needs.

Teacher–student interactive scaffolding refers to educators providing students with thought-provoking problems and offering targeted suggestions to enhance their ability to think critically, facilitate concept construction understanding, and enhance the learning experience [40,51]. The scaffolding strategy encompasses a range of supportive behaviors to guide students to achieve their learning goals. However, the challenges become pronounced for teachers due to the limited teacher–student ratio [52], making it difficult to provide each student with the necessary individualized scaffolding support.

Recent research has demonstrated the effectiveness of incorporating eye-tracking technology into educational scaffolding [53,54]. This innovative approach could be valuable in the classroom, where educators must tailor their teaching to accommodate the diverse knowledge levels of individual students, providing them with customized instructional support. A recent study conducted by Sun and Hsu (2019) demonstrated that using eye-tracking scaffolding positively impacted fostering learners’ self-efficacy. This effect was even more pronounced than other conventional methodologies for teaching coding to novices [54]. This method provided students with eye-tracking data to augment their feedback and self-assurance. Consequently, this prompts the question of how educators might effectively implement the eye-tracking system to enrich their teaching practices.

5. Final Considerations and Conclusions

The teachers’ perspectives on applying eye-tracking systems during a class show that the Mathematics instructor endorses the utility and importance of eye-tracking technology in various teaching scenarios, emphasizing its role in enhancing class interactivity and identifying moments of student confusion. The Computational Thinking instructor asserted that the majority of classroom scenarios would significantly benefit from the integration of eye-tracking technology, particularly in terms of sustaining student attention, fostering class interactivity, and gaining insights into students’ cognitive processes. The Geography instructor’s assessment presented a more nuanced perspective, with numerous scenarios classified as neutral or inconsequential. Despite this, the instructor acknowledged the potential of eye-tracking technology in supporting students with special needs, even though there was a degree of skepticism regarding its broader applicability in the classroom. Lastly, the Biology instructor emphasized the substantial benefits of eye tracking in many classroom situations, particularly in the identification of student confusion and the provision of immediate feedback.

Our findings suggest that eye tracking has the potential to become a valuable educational tool for teachers, particularly in personalizing teaching and supporting students. Previous studies have indicated that eye tracking is an emerging, portable, and cost-effective technology for collecting subjects’ eye movements in real time and non-intrusively [21]. Here, teachers have reported several advantages of eye tracking during classes, including maintaining students’ attention, increasing class interactivity, and providing immediate feedback. It is crucial to adapt eye tracking to the individual needs of students and to provide adequate training for teachers to apply this technique and interpret results effectively to maximize the benefits of this technology in education.

Incorporating student gaze maps into teacher training programs can significantly enhance the ability of educators to identify the problem-solving strategies employed by their students, particularly those who struggle with specific subjects. These maps also serve as an invaluable tool for promoting self-directed learning techniques, empowering students to retrace their steps during teaching activities, and fostering a deeper understanding of their learning process [54,55,56]. As a result, students would be better equipped to develop their skills, leading to academic achievement.

In considering the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), it can be argued that when educators have the opportunity to observe a student’s perspective in real time, they acquire a deeper and more nuanced understanding of the student’s existing knowledge and the particular challenges they encounter. This insight enables the teacher to adjust scaffolding strategies with greater precision and effectiveness. Specifically, by assessing the student’s current competencies, the teacher can promptly identify the student’s ZPD and provide the requisite support to facilitate the transition from their actual level of development to their potential level.

Our educational research was conducted as a proof-of-concept article, wherein we articulated our perspective on an innovative technological application pertinent to classroom pedagogy. This work emphasizes the practical application of technology, employing case studies to exemplify the utilization of eye tracking. Additionally, we incorporated teachers’ perspectives to critically examine the challenges they faced in implementing this methodology as an instructional tool and their evaluations of its efficacy in student interaction. This study offers insights into the application of eye tracking as an educational tool. We present a largely favorable perspective on implementing eye tracking within classroom settings, bolstered by discussions from professionals with extensive teaching experience. This exploration aims to deepen our understanding of the effective use of eye tracking, including its inherent advantages and potential limitations. This study presents an opportunity to propose a teaching method and observe its practical characteristics. To our knowledge, this is the first study to examine the feasibility of using eye-tracking technology to gather real-time feedback from students during a class. Our primary focus is on teachers and their perceptions of the advantages and disadvantages of applying eye-tracking technology in the classroom.

Regarding limitations, it is important to note that the teachers also expressed reservations about the efficacy of employing this method in the classroom. Navigating the intricate landscape of technical challenges, safeguarding students’ privacy, and accurately decoding data interpretations present substantial obstacles that demand careful consideration and strategic approaches. In addition, some teachers mentioned that using eye-tracking technology during class might overwhelm them by splitting their focus. While scanpaths are among the simplest metrics to gather and analyze, the effective integration of this technology into teaching practices demands considerable commitment. This includes extensive training for teachers, establishing a robust technological framework, and developing clear guidelines to ensure the privacy and security of student data. Finally, we acknowledge that including a questionnaire to gather insights into students’ experiences while using eye-tracking technology during classes would be valuable. Our case studies were designed to encourage discussions about how teachers might adapt eye-tracking methods to gather helpful information on student attention in the classroom. We prioritized obtaining teachers’ perspectives, as we posit that if eye tracking demonstrates efficacy as an educational tool, it will be feasible to expand this research through larger-scale studies that also encompass student feedback. Subsequent research endeavors can build upon these inquiries and address the gaps related to eye-tracking technology implementation within educational environments.

In conclusion, the findings illustrate the differences in teachers’ perceptions regarding the efficacy of eye tracking in diverse educational contexts. The teachers indicated that eye tracking can enhance interactivity, maintain student attention, and provide immediate feedback, thereby aiding in identifying student difficulties that may otherwise go unnoticed. Therefore, the consensus among instructors suggests a recognition of the potential benefits of eye-tracking technology in the classroom by obtaining real-time students’ visual scanpath, albeit with considerations regarding the challenges related to technical complexity, privacy, and data interpretation. This insight can inform the implementation and training of eye-tracking technology in schools, emphasizing scenarios with greater agreement regarding its utility.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, J.R.S. and R.d.S.S.J.; methodology, R.d.S.S.J., A.Y.A.O., E.D.P., M.B.R., C.d.N.V. and J.R.S.; validation, R.d.S.S.J., A.Y.A.O., E.D.P., M.B.R., C.d.N.V. and J.R.S.; formal analysis, R.d.S.S.J. and J.R.S.; investigation, R.d.S.S.J., A.Y.A.O., E.D.P., M.B.R., C.d.N.V. and J.R.S.; validation, R.d.S.S.J., A.Y.A.O., E.D.P., M.B.R., C.d.N.V. and J.R.S.; resources, J.R.S.; data curation, R.d.S.S.J. and J.R.S.; writing—original draft preparation, R.d.S.S.J.; writing—review and editing, R.d.S.S.J., A.Y.A.O., E.D.P., M.B.R., C.d.N.V. and J.R.S.; visualization, R.d.S.S.J. and J.R.S.; supervision, J.R.S.; project administration, J.R.S.; funding acquisition, J.R.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) grant no. 23/18337-3, 21/05332-8, and 23/02538-0, A.Y.A.O thanks the São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) grant no. 23/12217-6, and E.D.P. thanks to the UFABC/CARREFOUR-CEBRASPE scholarship.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study was conducted in accordance with the UFABC Institutional Review Board’s Ethics Committee, and the experiment followed all relevant guidelines and federal regulations (CAAE: 41837515.2.0000.5594, Approval date: 29 November 2023).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors on request.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to Jackson Cionek (BrainSupport) for the technological support. We declare AI tools were solely used to correct language and writing issues.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Figure 1. Mathematics activity. (A) A challenge in which students needed to reproduce the path without repeating any edges. (B) The activity was designed to be impossible to solve without repeating edges, prompting students to recognize and analyze why the task could not be completed as instructed.

Figure 2. Student gaze estimation. The video displays the real-time eye movements of a student as he works on a problem during class. First, the student realizes he made a mistake. Then, he rereads the problem statement, compares it with the previously created code block, identifies where they could make the change, and checks to see if it is correct. The student’s gaze is focused on the area where they can identify the correct solution.

Figure 3. Geography eye-tracking activity. Image of the map “Distribution of Soybean across Different Biomes” (2016) used in the Geography activity. The red cross represents the student’s gaze.

Figure 4. Biology eye-tracking activity. Screenshot from video showing student’s gaze path during one of the activities.

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Soares, R.d.S., Jr.; Pinheiro, E.D.; Oku, A.Y.A.; Rizzo, M.B.; Vieira, C.d.N.; Sato, J.R. Integrating Students’ Real-Time Gaze in Teacher–Student Interactions: Case Studies on the Benefits and Challenges of Eye Tracking in Primary Education. Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 11007. https://doi.org/10.3390/app142311007

AMA Style

Soares RdS Jr., Pinheiro ED, Oku AYA, Rizzo MB, Vieira CdN, Sato JR. Integrating Students’ Real-Time Gaze in Teacher–Student Interactions: Case Studies on the Benefits and Challenges of Eye Tracking in Primary Education. Applied Sciences. 2024; 14(23):11007. https://doi.org/10.3390/app142311007

Chicago/Turabian Style

Soares, Raimundo da Silva, Jr., Eneyse Dayane Pinheiro, Amanda Yumi Ambriola Oku, Marilia Biscaia Rizzo, Carolinne das Neves Vieira, and João Ricardo Sato. 2024. "Integrating Students’ Real-Time Gaze in Teacher–Student Interactions: Case Studies on the Benefits and Challenges of Eye Tracking in Primary Education" Applied Sciences 14, no. 23: 11007. https://doi.org/10.3390/app142311007

APA Style

Soares, R. d. S., Jr., Pinheiro, E. D., Oku, A. Y. A., Rizzo, M. B., Vieira, C. d. N., & Sato, J. R. (2024). Integrating Students’ Real-Time Gaze in Teacher–Student Interactions: Case Studies on the Benefits and Challenges of Eye Tracking in Primary Education. Applied Sciences, 14(23), 11007. https://doi.org/10.3390/app142311007

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