[go: up one dir, main page]
More Web Proxy on the site http://driver.im/ skip to main content
research-article

Do I Spit or Do I Pass?: Perceived Privacy and Security Concerns of Direct-to-Consumer Genetic Testing

Published: 14 January 2022 Publication History

Abstract

This study explores privacy concerns perceived by people with respect to having their DNA tested by direct-to-consumer (DTC) genetic testing companies such as 23andMe and Ancestry.com. Data collected from 510 respondents indicate that those who have already obtained a DTC genetic test have significantly lower levels of privacy and security concerns than those who have not obtained a DTC genetic test. Qualitative data from respondents of both these groups show that the concerns are mostly similar. However, the factors perceived to alleviate privacy concerns are more varied and nuanced amongst those who have obtained a DTC genetic test. Our data suggest that privacy concerns or lack of concerns are based on complex and multiple considerations including data ownership, access control of data and regulatory authorities of social, political and legal systems. Respondents do not engage in a full cost/benefit analysis of having their DNA tested.

References

[1]
Alessandro Acquisti, Laura Brandimarte, and George Loewenstein. 2015. Privacy and human behavior in the age of information. Science 347, 6221 (January 2015), 509--514.
[2]
Megan A. Allyse, David H. Robinson, Matthew J. Ferber, and Richard R. Sharp. 2018. Direct-to-Consumer Testing 2.0: Emerging Models of Direct-to-Consumer Genetic Testing. Mayo Clinic Proceedings 93, 1 (January 2018), 113--120.
[3]
Khadija Baig, Reham Mohamed, Anna-Lena Theus, and Sonia Chiasson. 2020. "I'm hoping they're an ethical company that won't do anything that I'll regret": Users Perceptions of At-home DNA Testing Companies. In Proceedings of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI '20), Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1--13.
[4]
Louise Barkhuus. 2012. The mismeasurement of privacy: using contextual integrity to reconsider privacy in HCI. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 367--376. Retrieved July 27, 2021 from https://doi.org/10.1145/2207676.2207727
[5]
Danah Boyd. 2012. Networked Privacy. Surveillance & Society 10, 3/4 (December 2012), 348--350.
[6]
Timothy Caulfield and Amy L. McGuire. 2012. Direct-to-Consumer Genetic Testing: Perceptions, Problems, and Policy Responses. Annual Review of Medicine 63, 1 (2012), 23--33.
[7]
Lynn F. Cherkas, Juliette M. Harris, Elana Levinson, Tim D. Spector, and Barbara Prainsack. 2010. A Survey of UK Public Interest in Internet-Based Personal Genome Testing. PLOS ONE 5, 10 (October 2010), e13473.
[8]
Francis S. Collins, Eric D. Green, Alan E. Guttmacher, and Mark S. Guyer. 2003. A vision for the future of genomics research. Nature 422, 6934 (April 2003), 835--847.
[9]
Kovila P. L. Coopamootoo and Thomas Groß. 2014. Mental Models for Usable Privacy: A Position Paper. In Human Aspects of Information Security, Privacy, and Trust (Lecture Notes in Computer Science), Springer International Publishing, Cham, 410--421.
[10]
Juliet Corbin and Anselm Strauss. 2007. Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory (3rd edition ed.). SAGE Publications, Inc, Los Angeles, Calif.
[11]
Loredana Covolo, Sara Rubinelli, Elisabetta Ceretti, and Umberto Gelatti. 2015. Internet-Based Direct-to-Consumer Genetic Testing: A Systematic Review. Journal of Medical Internet Research 17, 12 (2015), e279.
[12]
Andy Crabtree and R. Mortier. 2015. Human Data Interaction: Historical Lessons from Social Studies and CSCW. undefined (2015). Retrieved May 19, 2021 from /paper/Human-Data-Interaction%3A-Historical-Lessons-from-and-Crabtree-Mortier/d9407e2f4324d34e16d7975ae5f42b872ff4fbd8
[13]
Paul Dourish and Ken Anderson. 2006. Collective information practice: emploring privacy and security as social and cultural phenomena. Hum.-Comput. Interact. 21, 3 (September 2006), 319--342.
[14]
Jamie Ducharme. A Major Drug Company Now Has Access to 23andMe's Genetic Data. Should You Be Concerned? Time. Retrieved May 8, 2021 from https://time.com/5349896/23andme-glaxo-smith-kline/
[15]
Janna Lynn Dupree, Richard Devries, Daniel M. Berry, and Edward Lank. 2016. Privacy Personas: Clustering Users via Attitudes and Behaviors toward Security Practices. In Proceedings of the 2016 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 5228--5239. Retrieved July 27, 2021 from https://doi.org/10.1145/2858036.2858214
[16]
Thomas Goetz. 2007. 23AndMe Will Decode Your DNA for $1,000. Welcome to the Age of Genomics. Wired. Retrieved August 5, 2020 from https://www.wired.com/2007/11/ff-genomics/
[17]
Lesley Goldsmith, Leigh Jackson, Anita O'Connor, and Heather Skirton. 2012. Direct-to-consumer genomic testing: systematic review of the literature on user perspectives. European Journal of Human Genetics 20, 8 (August 2012), 811--816.
[18]
Anna Harris, Susan E. Kelly, and Sally Wyatt. 2014. Autobiologies on YouTube: narratives of direct-to-consumer genetic testing. New Genetics and Society 33, 1 (January 2014), 60--78.
[19]
James Hazel and Christopher Slobogin. 2018. Who Knows What, and When?: A Survey of the Privacy Policies Proffered by U.S. Direct-to-Consumer Genetic Testing Companies. Cornell Journal of Law and Public Policy 28, 1 (October 2018), 35--66.
[20]
Scott Hensley. 2018. NPR-Truven Health Analytics Poll On Genetic Testing?: Shots - Health News?: NPR. Retrieved August 4, 2020 from https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2018/06/01/616126056/poll-genealogical-curiosity-is-a-top-reason-for-dna-tests-privacy-a-concern
[21]
Priyank Jain, Manasi Gyanchandani, and Nilay Khare. 2016. Big data privacy: a technological perspective and review. Journal of Big Data 3, 1 (November 2016), 25.
[22]
Mark A. Jobling, Rita Rasteiro, and Jon H. Wetton. 2016. In the blood: the myth and reality of genetic markers of identity. Ethnic and Racial Studies 39, 2 (January 2016), 142--161.
[23]
Natalie Jones, Helen Ross, Timothy Lynam, Pascal Perez, and Anne Leitch. 2011. Mental Models: An Interdisciplinary Synthesis of Theory and Methods. Ecology and Society 16, 1 (March 2011).
[24]
Frank C. Keil. 2010. The Feasibility of Folk Science. Cogn Sci 34, 5 (May 2010), 826--862.
[25]
Jennifer King. 2014. Taken Out of Context: An Empirical Analysis of Westin ' s Privacy Scale. Workshop on Privacy Personas and Segmentation, PPS 2014 (2014). Retrieved July 27, 2021 from https://cups.cs.cmu.edu/soups/2014/workshops/privacy/s1p1.pdf
[26]
Jennifer King. 2019. "Becoming Part of Something Bigger": Direct to Consumer Genetic Testing, Privacy, and Personal Disclosure. Proc. ACM Hum.-Comput. Interact. 3, CSCW (November 2019), 158:1--158:33.
[27]
Priya Kumar, Shalmali Milind Naik, Utkarsha Ramesh Devkar, Marshini Chetty, Tamara L. Clegg, and Jessica Vitak. 2017. "No Telling Passcodes Out Because They're Private": Understanding Children's Mental Models of Privacy and Security Online. Proc. ACM Hum.-Comput. Interact. 1, CSCW (December 2017), 64:1--64:21.
[28]
Ponnurangam Kumaraguru and Lorrie Faith Cranor. 2005. Privacy Indexes: A Survey of Westin's Studies. Retrieved July 27, 2021 from https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Privacy-Indexes%3A-A-Survey-of-Westin%27s-Studies-Kumaraguru-Cranor/e47618a4355991aee3a2fd94c5e8adc1058f4a88
[29]
Carl Landwehr. 2018: A Big Year for Privacy. Retrieved April 7, 2021 from https://cacm.acm.org/magazines/2019/2/234344--2018-a-big-year-for-privacy/fulltext?mobile=false
[30]
J. W. Leighton, K. Valverde, and B. A. Bernhardt. 2012. The General Public's Understanding and Perception of Direct-to-Consumer Genetic Test Results. PHG 15, 1 (2012), 11--21.
[31]
Jingquan Li. 2016. Genetic Information Privacy in the Age of Data-Driven Medicine. In 2016 IEEE International Congress on Big Data (BigData Congress), 299--306.
[32]
Michelle L. McGowan, Jennifer R. Fishman, and Marcie A. Lambrix. 2010. Personal genomics and individual identities: motivations and moral imperatives of early users. New Genetics and Society 29, 3 (September 2010), 261--290.
[33]
Amy L. McGuire, Christina M. Diaz, Tao Wang, and Susan G. Hilsenbeck. 2009. Social Networkers' Attitudes Toward Direct-to-Consumer Personal Genome Testing. Am J Bioeth 9, 6--7 (2009), 3--10.
[34]
Richard Mortier, Hamed Haddadi, Tristan Henderson, Derek McAuley, and Jon Crowcroft. 2014. Human-Data Interaction: The Human Face of the Data-Driven Society. Social Science Research Network, Rochester, NY.
[35]
National Library of Medicine (US). 2020. What is direct-to-consumer genetic testing? Genetics Home Reference [Internet]. Retrieved August 1, 2020 from https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/primer/dtcgenetictesting/directtoconsumer
[36]
Emilia Niemiec and Heidi Carmen Howard. 2016. Ethical issues in consumer genome sequencing: Use of consumers' samples and data. Appl Transl Genom 8, (February 2016), 23--30.
[37]
Donald A. Norman. 1983. Design principles for human-computer interfaces. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI '83), Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1--10.
[38]
Kate O'Riordan. 2011. Writing Biodigital Life: Personal Genomes and Digital Media. Biography 34, 1 (2011), 119--131.
[39]
Gabriela Pavarini, Lamis Hamdi, Jessica Lorimer, and Ilina Singh. 2021. Young people's moral attitudes and motivations towards direct-to-consumer genetic testing for inherited risk of Alzheimer disease. European Journal of Medical Genetics (March 2021), 104180.
[40]
Andelka Phillips. 2015. Genomic Privacy and Direct-to-Consumer Genetics Big Consumer Genetic Data What s in that Contract? Retrieved May 8, 2021 from http://www.tara.tcd.ie/handle/2262/77428
[41]
Steven Pinker. 2009. My Genome, My Self. The New York Times. Retrieved August 5, 2020 from https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/11/magazine/11Genome-t.html
[42]
Emilee Rader and Janine Slaker. 2017. The importance of visibility for folk theories of sensor data. In Proceedings of the Thirteenth USENIX Conference on Usable Privacy and Security (SOUPS '17), USENIX Association, USA, 257--270.
[43]
J. Scott Roberts, Michele C. Gornick, Deanna Alexis Carere, Wendy R. Uhlmann, Mack T. Ruffin, and Robert C. Green. 2017. Direct-to-Consumer Genetic Testing: User Motivations, Decision Making, and Perceived Utility of Results. PHG 20, 1 (2017), 36--45.
[44]
Minna Ruckenstein. 2017. Keeping data alive: talking DTC genetic testing. Information, Communication & Society 20, 7 (July 2017), 1024--1039.
[45]
Grayson L. Ruhl, James W. Hazel, Ellen Wright Clayton, and Bradley A. Malin. 2020. Public Attitudes Toward Direct to Consumer Genetic Testing. AMIA Annu Symp Proc 2019, (March 2020), 774--783.
[46]
Jacqueline Savard, Chriselle Hickerton, Sylvia A. Metcalfe, Clara Gaff, Anna Middleton, and Ainsley J. Newson. 2020. From Expectations to Experiences: Consumer Autonomy and Choice in Personal Genomic Testing. AJOB Empirical Bioethics 11, 1 (January 2020), 63--76.
[47]
Jon Schuppe. Police were cracking cold cases with a DNA website. Then the fine print changed. NBC News. Retrieved May 8, 2021 from https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/police-were-cracking-cold-cases-dna-website-then-fine-print-n1070901
[48]
H. Jeff H Smith, Tamara Dinev, and Heng Xu. 2011. Information privacy research: an interdisciplinary review. MIS Q. 35, 4 (December 2011), 989--1016.
[49]
Rob Stien. 2018. Results Of At-Home Genetic Tests For Health Can Be Hard To Interpret. NPR.org. Retrieved August 4, 2020 from https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2018/06/18/609750963/results-of-at-home-genetic-tests-for-health-can-be-hard-to-interpret
[50]
Yeyang Su, Heidi C. Howard, and Pascal Borry. 2011. Users' motivations to purchase direct-to-consumer genome-wide testing: an exploratory study of personal stories. J Community Genet 2, 3 (May 2011), 135.
[51]
S. Shyam Sundar, Jinyoung Kim, Mary Beth Rosson, and Maria D. Molina. 2020. Online Privacy Heuristics that Predict Information Disclosure. In Proceedings of the 2020 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI '20), Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1--12.
[52]
Mauro Turrini and Barbara Prainsack. 2016. Beyond clinical utility: The multiple values of DTC genetics. Applied & Translational Genomics 8, (March 2016), 4--8.
[53]
Sumant Ugalmugle and Ruplai Swain. Direct-to-Consumer Genetic Testing Market Size Projections -2028. Global Market Insights, Inc. Retrieved August 1, 2020 from https://www.gminsights.com/industry-analysis/direct-to-consumer-dtc-genetic-testing-market
[54]
E. Vayena, E. Gourna, J. Streuli, E. Hafen, and B. Prainsack. 2012. Experiences of Early Users of Direct-to-Consumer Genomics in Switzerland: An Exploratory Study. PHG 15, 6 (2012), 352--362.
[55]
Effy Vayena, Christian Ineichen, Elia Stoupka, and Ernst Hafen. 2014. Playing a Part in Research? University Students' Attitudes to Direct-To-Consumer Genomics. PHG 17, 3 (2014), 158--168.
[56]
Rick Wash. 2010. Folk models of home computer security. In Proceedings of the Sixth Symposium on Usable Privacy and Security (SOUPS '10), Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 1--16.
[57]
Rick Wash and Emilee Rader. 2011. Influencing mental models of security: a research agenda. In Proceedings of the 2011 New Security Paradigms Workshop (NSPW '11), Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 57--66.
[58]
What is genetic discrimination?: MedlinePlus Genetics. Retrieved July 28, 2021 from https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/understanding/testing/discrimination/
[59]
What are single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs)?: MedlinePlus Genetics. Retrieved November 21, 2021 from https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/understanding/genomicresearch/snp/

Cited By

View all
  • (2024)The Landscape of Direct-To-Consumer Genetic Testing in Reproductive Health Contexts: An Analytical Framework of Stakeholders and Their Competing MotivationsHealth Communication10.1080/10410236.2024.231260739:13(3211-3224)Online publication date: 6-Feb-2024

Index Terms

  1. Do I Spit or Do I Pass?: Perceived Privacy and Security Concerns of Direct-to-Consumer Genetic Testing

    Recommendations

    Comments

    Please enable JavaScript to view thecomments powered by Disqus.

    Information & Contributors

    Information

    Published In

    cover image Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction
    Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction  Volume 6, Issue GROUP
    GROUP
    January 2022
    992 pages
    EISSN:2573-0142
    DOI:10.1145/3511803
    Issue’s Table of Contents
    Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. Copyrights for components of this work owned by others than ACM must be honored. Abstracting with credit is permitted. To copy otherwise, or republish, to post on servers or to redistribute to lists, requires prior specific permission and/or a fee. Request permissions from [email protected]

    Publisher

    Association for Computing Machinery

    New York, NY, United States

    Publication History

    Published: 14 January 2022
    Published in PACMHCI Volume 6, Issue GROUP

    Permissions

    Request permissions for this article.

    Check for updates

    Author Tags

    1. concerns
    2. decision making
    3. direct-to-consumer genetic testing
    4. heuristics
    5. information disclosure
    6. information privacy
    7. privacy
    8. rational
    9. security

    Qualifiers

    • Research-article

    Funding Sources

    • CSU-AAUP Research Grant (2019-2020)

    Contributors

    Other Metrics

    Bibliometrics & Citations

    Bibliometrics

    Article Metrics

    • Downloads (Last 12 months)124
    • Downloads (Last 6 weeks)15
    Reflects downloads up to 21 Dec 2024

    Other Metrics

    Citations

    Cited By

    View all
    • (2024)The Landscape of Direct-To-Consumer Genetic Testing in Reproductive Health Contexts: An Analytical Framework of Stakeholders and Their Competing MotivationsHealth Communication10.1080/10410236.2024.231260739:13(3211-3224)Online publication date: 6-Feb-2024

    View Options

    Login options

    Full Access

    View options

    PDF

    View or Download as a PDF file.

    PDF

    eReader

    View online with eReader.

    eReader

    Media

    Figures

    Other

    Tables

    Share

    Share

    Share this Publication link

    Share on social media