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  • Review Article
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Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems

Nature volume 413, pages 591–596 (2001)Cite this article

Abstract

All ecosystems are exposed to gradual changes in climate, nutrient loading, habitat fragmentation or biotic exploitation. Nature is usually assumed to respond to gradual change in a smooth way. However, studies on lakes, coral reefs, oceans, forests and arid lands have shown that smooth change can be interrupted by sudden drastic switches to a contrasting state. Although diverse events can trigger such shifts, recent studies show that a loss of resilience usually paves the way for a switch to an alternative state. This suggests that strategies for sustainable management of such ecosystems should focus on maintaining resilience.

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Figure 1: Possible ways in which ecosystem equilibrium states can vary with conditions such as nutrient loading, exploitation or temperature rise.
Figure 2: Two ways to shift between alternative stable states.
Figure 3: External conditions affect the resilience of multi-stable ecosystems to perturbation.
Figure 4: Hysteresis in the response of charophyte vegetation in the shallow Lake Veluwe to increase and subsequent decrease of the phosphorus concentration.
Figure 5: A graphical model60 of alternative stable states in shallow lakes on the basis of three assumptions: (1) turbidity of the water increases with the nutrient level; (2) submerged vegetation reduces turbidity; and (3) vegetation disappears when a critical turbidity is exceeded.
Figure 6: Over the past 9,000 years, average Northern Hemisphere summer insolation (upper panel) has varied gradually owing to subtle variation in the Earth's orbit.
Figure 7: Distinct state shifts occurred in the Pacific Ocean ecosystem around 1977 and 1989.

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Acknowledgements

We thank P. Yodzis for his help in improving the clarity of the manuscript. B. Holling played a key role over the past years in stimulating our discussions around the theme of resilience.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Aquatic Ecology and Water Quality Management, Wageningen University, PO Box 8080, DD Wageningen, NL-6700, The Netherlands

    Marten Scheffer

  2. Center for Limnology, University of Wisconsin, 680 North Park Street, Madison, 53706, Wisconsin, USA

    Steve Carpenter

  3. Center for Sustainability and the Global Environment (SAGE), Institute for Environmental Studies, University of Wisconsin, 1225 West Dayton Street, Madison, 53706, Wisconsin, USA

    Jonathan A. Foley

  4. Department of Systems Ecology and Centre for Research on Natural Resources and the Environment (CNM), Stockholm University, Stockholm, S-10691, Sweden

    Carl Folke

  5. CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems, GPO Box 284, Canberra, 2601, Australian Capital Territory, Australia

    Brian Walker

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Correspondence to Marten Scheffer.

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Scheffer, M., Carpenter, S., Foley, J. et al. Catastrophic shifts in ecosystems. Nature 413, 591–596 (2001). https://doi.org/10.1038/35098000

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