[go: up one dir, main page]
More Web Proxy on the site http://driver.im/ Skip to main content
Springer Nature Link
Log in

Toward a Unified Theory of Digital Games

  • Published:
The Computer Games Journal

Abstract

Since digital games and their scientific study are quite new, many questions concerning the fundamental nature of these phenomena remain. Two often-cited attempts to clarify the fundamental components of games include the Mechanics–Dynamics–Aesthetics Framework and the Elemental Tetrad. This theory development paper attempts to reconcile these two frameworks into a single, clear and cohesive account of the kinds of elements that constitute games. The proposed theory not only includes all of the elements from its source frameworks but also introduces two refinements: (1) it differentiates game mechanics from narrative mechanics; (2) it distinguishes three types of narratives—stories told by the developers through the game, stories that emerge from gameplay and players’ interpretations of game stories. The proposed theory should be useful for teaching game design fundamentals, as a coding scheme for qualitative data analysis and to analyse game design challenges. Subject to further clarification and extension, the proposed model may provide a basis for a general theory of digital games.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Subscribe and save

Springer+ Basic
£29.99 /Month
  • Get 10 units per month
  • Download Article/Chapter or eBook
  • 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
  • Cancel anytime
Subscribe now

Buy Now

Price includes VAT (United Kingdom)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Aarseth, E. (2001). Computer game studies, year one. Game Studies, 1(1), 1–15.

    MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

  • Amory, A. (2007). Game object model version II: A theoretical framework for educational game development. Educational Technology Research and Development, 55(1), 51–77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bartle, R. A. (2004). Designing virtual worlds. Indianapolis: New Riders Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bishop, S. R., Lau, M., Shapiro, S., Carlson, L., Anderson, N. D., Carmody, J., et al. (2004). Mindfulness: A proposed operational definition. Clinical psychology: Science and Practice, 11(3), 230–241.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, E., & Cairns, P. (2004). A grounded investigation of game immersion. New York: ACM.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Canossa, A. (2007). Towards a theory of player: Designing for experience. In B. Akira (Ed.), Proceedings of DiGRA 2007 conference: Situated play. Tokyo: Digitial Games Research Association.

  • Canossa, A. (2009). Play-persona: Modeling player behaviour in computer games. Ph.D. dissertation. Copenhagen: Danish Design School of Copenhagen.

  • Carlquist, J. (2013). Playing the story: Computer games as a narrative genre. Human IT: Journal for Information Technology Studies as a Human Science, 6(3), 7–53.

    Google Scholar 

  • Choi, D., & Kim, J. (2004). Why people continue to play online games: In search of critical design factors to increase customer loyalty to online contents. CyberPsychology and Behavior, 7(1), 11–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chou, T.-J., & Ting, C.-C. (2003). The role of flow experience in cyber-game addiction. CyberPsychology and Behavior, 6(6), 663–675.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Churchman, C. W. (1971). The design of inquiring systems: Basic concepts of systems and organization. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Connolly, T. M., et al. (2012). A systematic literature review of empirical evidence on computer games and serious games. Computers and Education, 59(2), 661–686.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cover, R. (2006). Audience inter/active interactive media, narrative control and reconceiving audience history. New Media and Society, 8(1), 139–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Beyond boredom and anxiety. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cuddon, J. A. (1998). The Penguin dictionary of literary terms and literary theory (4th edn.). London: Penguin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davis, F. D. (1989). Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology. MIS Quarterly, 13(3), 319–340.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deterding, S., et al. (2011). From game design elements to gamefulness: Defining ‘gamification’. In Proceedings of the 15th international academic MindTrek conference (pp. 9–15): ACM.

  • Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989). Building theories from case study research. The Academy of Management Review, 14(4), 532–550.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fall, K. A., Holden, J. M., & Marquis, A. (2004). Theoretical models of counseling and psychotherapy. New York: Brunner-Routledge.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Fang, X., & Zhao, F. (2010). Personality and enjoyment of computer game play. Computers in Industry, 61(4), 342–349.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fawcett, J., & Downs, F. S. (1986). The relationship of theory and research. Norwalk, CT: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: an introduction to theory and research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Pub. Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gackenbach, J., & Bown, J. (2011). Mindfulness and video game play: A preliminary inquiry. Mindfulness, 2(2), 114–122.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Chicago: Aldine Pub. Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldstein, J. (1999). Emergence as a construct: History and issues. Emergence, 1(1), 49–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gregor, S. (2006). The nature of theory in information systems. MIS Quarterly, 30(3), 611–642.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Halverson, R., Shaffer, D. & Squire, K. (2006). Theorizing games in/and education. In Proceedings of the 7th international conference on learning sciences (pp. 1048–1052).

  • Hamilton, K. (2014). Yes, you should play the new version of GTA V. Kotaku. http://kotaku.com/yes-you-should-play-the-new-version-of-gta-v-1659433742. Accessed November 19, 2014.

  • Harteveld, C. (2011). Triadic Game Design: Balancing Reality, Meaning and Play. London: Springer.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Hocking, C. (2007). Ludonarrative dissonance in Bioshock. Clicknothing.typepad.com. http://clicknothing.typepad.com/click_nothing/2007/10/ludonarrative-d.html. Accessed July 16, 2013.

  • Hunicke, R., LeBlanc, M. & Zubek, R. (2004). MDA: A formal approach to game design and game research. In Proceedings of the AAAI workshop on challenges in game AI. San Jose, CA.

  • Jenkins, H. (2004). Game design as narrative architecture. In N. Wardrip-Fruin & P. Harrigan (Eds.), First person: New media as story, performance, and game (pp. 118–130). Cambridge: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Juul, J. (2001). Games telling stories. Game Studies, 1(1), 45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kearney, R. (2002). On stories. London: Routledge.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Kiili, K. (2005). Digital game-based learning: Towards an experiential gaming model. The Internet and higher education, 8(1), 13–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Madigan, J. (2010). The psychology of immersion in video games. The Psychology of Video Games. http://www.psychologyofgames.com/2010/07/the-psychology-of-immersion-in-video-games/. Accessed May 12, 2014.

  • Michael, D. R., & Chen, S. L. (2006). Serious games: Games that educate, train, and inform. Boston, MA: Thompson Course Technology PTR.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray, J. H. (1997). Hamlet on the holodeck: The future of narrative in cyberspace. New York: Simon and Schuster.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nacke, L., & Lindley, C. A. (2008). Flow and immersion in first-person shooters: Measuring the player’s gameplay experience. New York: ACM.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Nathanson, D. L. (1992). Shame and pride: Affect, sex and the birth of the self. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • OED Online. (2015). Oxford University Press. www.oed.com.

  • Parsons, J., & Wand, Y. (2008). A question of class. Nature, 455(7216), 1040–1041.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pearce, C. (2004). Towards a game theory of game. In N. Wardrip-Fruin & P. Harrigan (Eds.), First person: New media as story, performance, and game (pp. 143–153). Cambridge: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Piekarski, W., & Thomas, B. (2002). ARQuake: The outdoor augmented reality gaming system. Communications of the ACM, 45(1), 36–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Portnow, J. (2012). Extra credits: Aesthetics of play. Penny Arcade, 5(9). http://www.penny-arcade.com/patv/episode/aesthetics-of-play. Accessed December 1, 2014.

  • Przybylski, A. K., Rigby, C. S., & Ryan, R. M. (2010). A motivational model of video game engagement. Review of General Psychology, 14(2), 154–166.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ralph, P. & Monu, K. (2014). MTDA + N—A working theory of game design. First Person Scholar. http://www.firstpersonscholar.com/a-working-theory-of-game-design/. Accessed June 15, 2014.

  • Rouse, R., & Ogden, S. (2005). Game design: Theory and practice (2nd ed.). Sudbury: Jones & Bartlett Learning.

    Google Scholar 

  • Salen, K., & Zimmerman, E. (2004). Rules of play. Cambridge: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schell, J. (2008). The art of game design: A book of lenses. Burlington: Morgan Kaufmann.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Tito, G. (2014). Civilization: Beyond earth review—Analysis paralysis. The Escapist. http://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/video-games/editorials/reviews/12483-Sid-Meier-s-Civilization-Beyond-Earth-Review. Accessed December 1, 2014.

  • Van de Ven, A. H. (2007). Engaged scholarship: A guide for organizational and social research. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Voiskounsky, A. E., Mitina, O. V., & Avetisova, A. A. (2004). Playing online games: Flow experience. PsychNology Journal, 2(3), 259–281.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warner, J. (2007). The legend of leeroy jenkins. Denver Westword. http://www.westword.com/2007-03-08/news/the-legend-of-leeroy-jenkins/. Accessed November 16, 2014.

  • Yee, N. (2006). Motivations for play in online games. CyberPsychology and Behavior, 9(6), 772–775.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Young, J. E., Klosko, J. S., & Weishaar, M. E. (2003). Schema therapy: A practitioner’s guide. New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Carson Woo, Ryan Murphy, anonymous reviewer one and all of the game designers, scholars and players who volunteered feedback on this paper and the theory it proposes.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand

    Paul Ralph

  2. Savannah State University, Savannah, GA, USA

    Kafui Monu

Authors
  1. Paul Ralph
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Kafui Monu
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Paul Ralph.

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Ralph, P., Monu, K. Toward a Unified Theory of Digital Games. Comput Game J 4, 81–100 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40869-015-0007-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40869-015-0007-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation