Abstract
Artificial intelligence (AI) technology significantly impacted educational institutions, and AI application in education brought new perspectives to develop improved technology-enhanced learning systems. Recently, novel approaches in technology-enabled learning utilizing virtual reality (VR) instead of traditional multimedia materials, digital learning games, and educational software. The use of VR technologies in language education improves creativity, interactivity, collaboration, problem-solving, and active knowledge building. In addition, the benefits of using VR in language education extend to lower elementary grades. Young learners can greatly benefit from the immersive and engaging nature of VR technology when learning English. By incorporating VR into English education, students in these grades can experience a more interactive and stimulating learning environment. This study examined which constructs affect students’ continuous use of VR by applying the Technology Acceptance Theory (TAM) theory and explored whether and how VR can improve students’ abilities to learn English compared to voice-video-based oral communications. The results have academic and practical implications, as they provide guidance for a rigorous aspect of technology-enhanced learning and demonstrate strong evidence that VR is more effective than traditional education methods. This supports educators and researchers in developing VR materials and activities. This study emphasized the advantages and potentials of VR in language education.
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The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
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This research was supported by Institute of Management Research of Seoul National University.
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Appendices
Appendix 1: Survey for study 1 (5-point likert scale)
Item | Statement |
|---|---|
Image (IMG) – Venkatesh & Bala, 2008 | |
IMG 1 | Students in my school/institute who use the system have more prestige than those who do not |
IMG 2 | Students in my organization who use the system have a high profile |
IMG 3 | Having the system is a status symbol in my school/institute |
Result Demonstrability (RES)—Venkatesh & Bala, 2008 | |
RES 1 | I have no difficulty telling others about the results of using the VR system |
RES 2 | I believe I could communicate to others the consequence of using the VR system |
RES 3 | The results of using the VR system are apparent to me |
Computer Anxiety (CANX)—Venkatesh & Bala, 2008 | |
CANX 1 | Working with the VR system makes me nervous |
CANX 2 | VR systems make me feel uncomfortable |
CANX 3 | VR systems make me feel uneasy |
Computer Playfulness (CPLAY)—Venkatesh & Bala, 2008 | |
CPLAY 1 | The following questions ask you how you would characterize yourself when you use the VR systems: … spontaneous |
CPLAY 2 | … creative |
CPLAY 3 | … playful |
Perceived Enjoyment (ENJ)—Venkatesh & Bala, 2008 | |
ENJ 1 | I find using the VR system to be enjoyable |
ENJ 2 | The actual process of using the VR system is pleasant |
ENJ 3 | I have fun using the VR system |
Perceived Usefulness (PU)—Venkatesh & Bala, 2008 | |
PU 1 | Using the VR system improves my performance in my English learning |
PU 2 | Using the VR system in my English learning increases my output |
PU 3 | Using the VR system enhances my effectiveness in my English learning |
PU 4 | I find the VR system to be useful in my English learning |
Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU)—Venkatesh & Bala, 2008 | |
PEOU 1 | My interaction with the VR system is clear and understandable |
PEOU 2 | Interacting with the VR system does not require a lot of mental effort |
PEOU 3 | I find that the VR system is easy to use |
Behavioral Intention (BI)—Venkatesh & Bala, 2008 | |
BI 1 | Assuming I had access to the VR system, I intend to use it |
BI 2 | Given that I had access to the VR system, I predict that I would use it |
BI 3 | I plan to use the VR system in the next 3 months |
Appendix 2: Results of factor analysis and reliability analysis
-
1)
Image (IMG)
Image (IMG) | Component | Communalities | Cronbach’s α |
|---|---|---|---|
Students in my school/institute who use the system have more prestige than those who do not | 0.79 | 0.63 | 0.780 |
Students in my organization who use the system have a high profile | 0.77 | 0.59 | |
Having the system is a status symbol in my school/institute | 0.78 | 0.61 | |
Total | 1.83 | ||
% of Variance | 60.98 | ||
Cumulative % | 60.98 | ||
KMO and Bartlett's Test | |||
Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy | 0.81 | ||
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity | Approx. Chi-Square = 104.19 | ||
df = 3 | |||
Sig. = 0.000*** | |||
-
2)
Result Demonstrability (RES)
Result Demonstrability (RES) | Component | Communalities | Cronbach’s α |
|---|---|---|---|
I have no difficulty telling others about the results of using the VR system | 0.84 | 0.71 | 0.816 |
I believe I could communicate to others the consequences of using the VR system | 0.91 | 0.83 | |
The results of using the VR system are apparent to me | 0.81 | 0.65 | |
Total | 2.20 | ||
% of Variance | 73.23 | ||
Cumulative % | 73.23 | ||
KMO and Bartlett's Test | |||
Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy | 0.86 | ||
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity | Approx. Chi-Square = 258.35 | ||
df = 3 | |||
Sig. = 0.000*** | |||
-
3)
Computer Anxiety (CANX)
Computer Anxiety (CANX) | Component | Communalities | Cronbach’s α |
|---|---|---|---|
Working with a VR system makes me nervous | 0.88 | 0.78 | 0.838 |
VR systems make me feel uncomfortable | 0.90 | 0.81 | |
VR systems make me feel uneasy | 0.83 | 0.69 | |
Total | 2.27 | ||
% of Variance | 75.71 | ||
Cumulative % | 75.71 | ||
KMO and Bartlett's Test | |||
Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy | 0.81 | ||
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity | Approx. Chi-Square = 280.01 | ||
df = 3 | |||
Sig. = 0.000*** | |||
-
4)
Computer Playfulness (CPLAY)
Computer Playfulness (CPLAY) | Component | Communalities | Cronbach’s α |
|---|---|---|---|
The following questions ask you how you would characterize yourself when you use VR systems: …spontaneous | 0.90 | 0.81 | 0.854 |
…creative | 0.87 | 0.75 | |
…playful | 0.88 | 0.77 | |
Total | 2.32 | ||
% of Variance | 77.41 | ||
Cumulative % | 77.41 | ||
KMO and Bartlett's Test | |||
Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy | 0.83 | ||
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity | Approx. Chi-Square = 297.14 | ||
df = 3 | |||
Sig. = 0.000*** | |||
-
5)
Perceived Enjoyment (ENJ)
Perceived Enjoyment (ENJ) | Component | Communalities | Cronbach’s α |
|---|---|---|---|
I find using the VR system to be enjoyable | 0.85 | 0.72 | 0.859 |
The actual process of using the VR system is pleasant | 0.91 | 0.83 | |
I have fun using the VR system | 0.89 | 0.79 | |
Total | 2.34 | ||
% of Variance | 78.14 | ||
Cumulative % | 78.14 | ||
KMO and Bartlett's Test | |||
Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy | 0.81 | ||
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity | Approx. Chi-Square = 321.05 | ||
df = 3 | |||
Sig. = 0.000*** | |||
-
6)
Perceived Usefulness (PU)
Perceived Usefulness (PU) | Component | Communalities | Cronbach’s α |
|---|---|---|---|
Using the VR system improves my performance in my English learning | 0.72 | 0.53 | 0.875 |
Using the VR system in my English learning increases my output | 0.90 | 0.81 | |
Using the VR system enhances my effectiveness in my English learning | 0.89 | 0.79 | |
I find the VR system to be useful in my English learning | 0.90 | 0.81 | |
Total | 2.93 | ||
% of Variance | 73.33 | ||
Cumulative % | 73.33 | ||
KMO and Bartlett's Test | |||
Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy | 0.87 | ||
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity | Approx. Chi-Square = 529.88 | ||
df = 6 | |||
Sig. = 0.000*** | |||
-
7)
Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU)
Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU) | Component | Communalities | Cronbach’s α |
|---|---|---|---|
My interaction with the VR system is clear and understandable | 0.89 | 0.79 | 0.856 |
Interacting with the VR system does not require a lot of mental effort | 0.90 | 0.80 | |
I find that the VR system is easy to use | 0.86 | 0.74 | |
Total | 2.33 | ||
% of Variance | 77.71 | ||
Cumulative % | 77.71 | ||
KMO and Bartlett's Test | |||
Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy | 0.83 | ||
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity | Approx. Chi-Square = 302.82 | ||
df = 3 | |||
Sig. = 0.000*** | |||
-
8)
Behavioral Intention (BI)
Behavioral Intention (BI) | Component | Communalities | Cronbach’s α |
|---|---|---|---|
Assuming I had access to the VR system, I intend to use it | 0.75 | 0.56 | 0.715 |
Given that I had access to the VR system, I predict that I would use it | 0.77 | 0.59 | |
I plan to use the VR system in the next 3 months | 0.73 | 0.54 | |
Total | 1.70 | ||
% of Variance | 56.53 | ||
Cumulative % | 56.53 | ||
KMO and Bartlett's Test | |||
Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy | 0.84 | ||
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity | Approx. Chi-Square = 73.15 | ||
df = 3 | |||
Sig. = 0.000*** | |||
Appendix 3: Pretest quiz paper
Appendix 4: Quiz paper used in study 2
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Chang, H., Park, J. & Suh, J. Virtual reality as a pedagogical tool: An experimental study of English learner in lower elementary grades. Educ Inf Technol 29, 4809–4842 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-11988-y
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-11988-y