Keywords

1 Introduction

Social Media and Social Networking Sites have become an everyday activity for many people, providing an essential electronic medium for social interaction. Undoubtedly, one of the current leaders in Social Media is Facebook, which NBC reported as having 2.27 billion users worldwide as of 2018 [1]. Unlike text-based platforms like Twitter, and image-based platforms like Instagram, Facebook is a truly mixed-platform allowing for a range of activities: such as the sharing of text, images, and web links [2].

1.1 The Internet, Social Media and Materialism

Traditionally, materialism has been defined as the importance people place on worldly possessions [3, 4]; although materialism has also been defined as a belief in materialistic activities defining the self, and being linked to desirable symbolic values (e.g., power) [5, 6]. Kasser and Ryan [7] defined materialistic (extrinsic) values as centering around three main preoccupations – financial success, social recognition, and an appealing appearance. This contrasts with non-materialistic (intrinsic) values of self-acceptance, affiliation, community feeling, and physical fitness.

Research has demonstrated an association between the Internet and materialism, with greater self-reported time spent using the Internet (but not time spent watching TV, nor reading newspapers/magazines) positively predicted both materialistic values and better brand knowledge (being able to identify brand logos) [8]. Additionally, in both American and Chinese samples, the intensity of social media usage was found to be positively related to materialistic values [9]. And furthermore, more time on Facebook specifically was associated with materialistic values, with materialists using Facebook to satisfying materialistic goals [10].

These findings, naturally, raise the question of why the Internet and social media might be associated with materialism. As Gerbner [11] claimed in his cultivation theory, agents of mass communication (originally referring to television) transmit mass messages that profoundly affect people’s perception and values. And as Cultivation theory further argued, marketing is a factor influencing the cultural environment, and subsequently people’s values [12]. There is evidence that this could be applied to the Internet (as the new mass communication technology) and social media. Marketers have already recognized the importance of Facebook, with many top brands maintain a presence on Facebook [13]. And some argued that social media is a more effective method of advertising, compared to more traditional forms of media such as television or radio [14], with social media able to reach specific target audiences and place advertisements more cheaply than traditional media [15].

Furthermore, there is evidence that social media usage can be linked to materialism and consumption. Social media marketing has been shown to specifically affect adolescents’ attitudes towards certain brands [16]. Advertising on social media can also raise consumer engagement [13]. And increased social media usage also has been associated with increased brand consciousness as well as an intention to buy luxury products in a sample of millennials [17]. Furthermore, some claimed that the various consumption-related messages online could be a factor in raising levels of materialism in young adults [18]. And others argued that consumerist messages transmitted through Chinese social media platform Weibo have influenced the growth of materialism and hedonism in China [19].

Given previous research [e.g., 10], the first purpose of the current research is to see whether time checking Facebook would be associated with higher levels of materialistic values in our sample (RQ1.).

The second purpose of the current research is to investigate whether paying greater attention to advertising on Facebook specifically will be associated with higher level of materialistic values (RQ2.).

1.2 Materialistic Values and Facebook Usage

Previous research demonstrated an association between materialistic values and greater time using Facebook, as it is claimed that materialists use Facebook to satisfy materialistic goals [10]. And if materialists use Facebook to satisfy their specific needs, then it could furthermore be the case that materialists use Facebook in different ways to less materialistic people. Given the nature of both materialistic values (extrinsic) and non-materialistic values (intrinsic) [7] it could be the case that some activities might be more attuned to extrinsic values and some more attuned with intrinsic values. For example, some materialists use Facebook to gain positive affect from positive self-presentation [10], which could be linked to the extrinsic (materialistic) values of seeking social recognition [7]. Conversely, research has found that the motivation to share on Facebook include the drive to share information with others and to interact with others [20], which could be related to the non-materialistic (intrinsic) values of affiliation and community feeling (drives to connect and help others). Overall, materialistic and non-materialistic values could be related to using Facebook in different ways, and the current research attempts to investigate any possible associations.

The current research will investigate whether different types of Facebook usage are associated with materialistic values (RQ 3.).

The current research will also investigate whether different types of Facebook usage are associated with non-materialistic values (RQ4.).

2 Method

2.1 Participants

One hundred and eight undergraduate psychology participants were recruited from a university in the Midlands of England, U.K. All took part in an online study for course credit. The sample comprised of 94 females and 14 males, with ages ranging from 18 to 50 (M = 20.57, SD = 5.79).

2.2 Materials

Participants were given a demographic questionnaire that asked their age, gender, as well as two questions about their social media usage: firstly, how many times on average that they check Facebook a day (free typing a response) and secondly how often they pay attention to advertising on Facebook (1 never, 2 rarely, 3 sometimes, 4 often, 5 very frequently).

Participants also filled in a questionnaire on the specific activities they most used Facebook for. We initially based our measure on Junco’s [21] Facebook Usage Scale. After pilot work, seven items were adapted from Junco’s original scale, asking participants how often they: posted status updates, shared links, posted photos, chatted on Facebook messenger, checked to see what someone is up to, commented on content, and viewed other people’s photos. In addition, after pilot work, an additional item (not from Junco’s original measure) was added asking participants how often they: added friends. This made a total of eight items. Participants indicated on a 5-point scale (1 never, 2 rarely, 3 sometimes, 4 often, 5 very frequently) how frequently they performed each activity.

Materialistic and non-materialistic values were measured using Kasser and Ryan’s [7] 42-item Aspiration Index. Participants had to indicate both the importance and likelihood of achieving both extrinsic (materialistic) and intrinsic (non-materialistic) values on a 5-point scale (higher numbers equaling higher levels). Extrinsic values comprised of three subscales, measuring how much participants valued: financial success, social recognition, and an attractive appearance. Intrinsic values consisted of four sub-scales, measuring how much participants valued: affiliation, community feeling, physical fitness, and self-acceptance. Cronbach’s alpha showed good internal consistency for extrinsic importance (α = .87), extrinsic likelihood (α = .88), intrinsic importance (α = .87), and intrinsic likelihood (α = .89).

2.3 Procedure

Participants completed the survey online, with the survey housed on the online research platform Qualtrics. Participants first filled out the Demographics Questionnaire, then the Facebook Usage Questionnaire, and lastly the Aspiration Index.

3 Results

Table 1 presents the means and standard deviations for all variables in the current study, and the zero-order correlations are shown in Table 2. Firstly, tests of assumptions were conducted for the regression analyses of the four models being investigated. The test of Cook’s distance indicated there to be no outliers, due to the statistical value being smaller than 1. To assess multicollinearity the variance inflation factor analyses (VIF) was carried out for all four models, and displayed there to be no multicollinearity, as each VIF was less than 2 (VIF = > 1). The Durbin-Watson statistic demonstrated that adjacent residuals were uncorrelated, with the value for each model being close to 2, indicating that the assumption for independence of errors was met.

Table 1. Mean and standard deviations of measures
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Table 2. Zero-order Correlations
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In the present study, four multiple linear regressions were conducted using the stepwise method. The stepwise method was applied due to the large number of predictor variables in the current study, and due to its utility in being able to identify the most significant relationships between variables.

3.1 Materialistic Values and Times Checking Facebook a Day, Attention to Advertising on Facebook, and Types of Facebook Usage

Two multiple linear regressions were used to examine whether times checking Facebook a day, attention to advertising on Facebook, and types of Facebook usage would predict materialistic values (both for extrinsic importance and extrinsic likelihood). The first multiple linear regression was used to examine whether times checking Facebook a day, attention to advertising on Facebook, and types of Facebook usage would predict extrinsic importance. Using the stepwise method, it was found that a three-predictor model accounted for 15.9% of the variance, F(3, 104) = 6.57, p < .001, with an R2 of .16 (Adjusted R2 = .14). Further to this, Cohen’s f2 = .19 suggested a medium effect size. Extrinsic importance (materialistic) was negatively associated with chatting on Facebook messenger (β = −.27, t(104) = −2.88, p = .005), negatively associated with sharing links (β = −.28, t(104) = −3.02, p = .003), and positively associated with posting photos (β = .28, t(104) = 2.88, p = .005).

The second multiple linear regression was used to examine whether times checking Facebook a day, attention to advertising on Facebook, and types of Facebook usage would predict extrinsic likelihood. Using the stepwise method, it was found that a three-predictor model accounted for 17.6% of the variance, F(3, 104) = 7.42, p < .001, with an R2 of .18 (Adjusted R2 = .15). Further to this, Cohen’s f2 = .21 suggested a medium to large effect size. Sharing links was found to negatively predict extrinsic likelihood (β = −.34, t(104) = −3.54, p < .001), chatting on Facebook messenger was found to negatively predict extrinsic likelihood (β = −.29, t(104) = −2.55, p = .012), and posting status updates was found to positively predict extrinsic likelihood (β = .23, t(104) = 2.44, p = .016).

3.2 Non-materialistic Values and Times Checking Facebook a Day, Attention to Advertising on Facebook, Types of Facebook Usage

Two further multiple linear regressions were used to examine whether times checking Facebook a day, attention to advertising on Facebook, and types of Facebook usage would predict non-materialistic values (both for intrinsic importance and intrinsic likelihood). The first multiple linear regression was to examine whether times checking Facebook a day, attention to advertising on Facebook and types of Facebook usage would predict intrinsic importance. Using the stepwise method, it was found that a three-predictor model accounted for 15.9% of the variance, F(3, 104) = 6.57, p < .001, with an R2 of .16 (Adjusted R2 = .14). Further to this, Cohen’s f2 = .19 suggested a medium effect size. Chatting on Facebook messenger was found to positively predict intrinsic importance (β = .27, t(104) = 2.878, p = .005), sharing links was found to positively predict intrinsic importance (β =.28, t(104) = 3.02, p = .003), and posting photos was found to negatively predict intrinsic importance (β = −.28, t(104) = −2.88, p = .005).

The final multiple linear regression was used to examine whether times checking Facebook a day, attention to advertising on Facebook, and types of Facebook usage would predict intrinsic likelihood. Using the stepwise method, it was found that a three-predictor model accounted for 17.6% of the variance, F(3, 104) = 7.42, p < .001, with an R2 of .18 (Adjusted R2 = .15). Further to this, Cohen’s f2 = .21 suggested a medium to large effect size. Sharing links was found to positively predict intrinsic likelihood (β = .34, t(104) = 3.53, p < .001), chatting on Facebook messenger was found to positively predict intrinsic likelihood (β = .29, t(104) = 2.55, p = .012), and posting status updates was found to negatively predict intrinsic likelihood (β = −.23, t(104) = −2.44, p = .016).

4 Discussion

Initially, in support of research question 3, it was found that materialistic values were associated with specific Facebook activities. However, these associations were slightly different according to whether participants were responding to how important (extrinsic importance) they thought these values to be, or how likely (extrinsic likeliness) they thought these materialistic values were to be achieved. Extrinsic importance was associated with more time spent posting photos on Facebook, but less time messaging others on Facebook messenger, and less time spent sharing links. Extrinsic likelihood was associated with more time spent posting status updates on Facebook, but less time messaging others on Facebook messenger, and less time spent sharing links. Conversely, and in support of research question 4, levels of non-materialistic (internal) values were also associated with specific Facebook activities. Although these associations were slightly different according to whether participants were responding to how important (intrinsic importance) they thought these values to be, or how likely (intrinsic likeliness) they thought these non-materialistic values were to be achieved. Intrinsic importance (importance attached to non-materialistic values) was associated with more time spent using Facebook messenger, more time spent sharing links, but less time spent posting photos. However, intrinsic likelihood was associated with more time spent using Facebook messenger, more time spent sharing links, but less time posting status updates. Surprisingly and in contrast to research question 1, self-reported time spent checking Facebook was not associated with materialistic values. And in contrast to research 2, greater self-reported attention to advertising was not associated with materialistic values. Research questions 1 and 2 were therefore not supported in the current study.

The current research found that (self-reported) higher levels of materialistic values were associated with reports of using Facebook in a specific way: namely spending more time posting photos (for extrinsic importance) and posting more status updates (for extrinsic likelihood). Although there needs to be caution when interpreting causation from tests of association, this may not seem surprising as previous research has showed that materialists use Facebook to gain positive affect from positive self-presentation [10]. Although the current research does not specifically test these specific motivations, an obvious way to seek positive self-presentation on Facebook could (theoretically) be to post flattering photos of oneself, one’s life and (when considering materialistic values) perhaps one’s possessions. Furthermore, Facebook status updates could also be a way of promoting positive self-image, e.g., positing about positive events or achievements in one’s life. Previous research claimed materialists use Facebook to satisfy their materialistic goals [10], and the posting of photos and status updates on Facebook could be examples of materialists doing exactly that. The current research goes beyond previous research though, to demonstrate that greater (self-reported) non-materialistic values were associated with spending less time positing photos (for intrinsic importance) and posting status updates (for intrinsic likelihood); this could possibly be a reflection that non-materialistic values are not greatly served by these particular activities.

In contrast to materialistic values, non-materialistic values were associated with greater self-reported time spent using Facebook messenger and posting links. Bearing in mind that caution should be applied to inferring causation from tests of association, one could speculate that this could possibly reflect how non-materialists use Facebook to satisfy their non-materialistic values. If central non-materialistic values include affiliation and community [7], then it might not seem so surprising that non-materialistic people spend more time using Facebook messenger to communicate with specific others, and use Facebook to share links with others. Furthermore, these findings might not be too dissimilar to previous research that has shown that motivations to share on Facebook include interacting with others and to share information [20]. Perhaps these motivations are more likely for those more intrinsically (non-materialistically) motivated. So, the current study goes beyond previous research to suggest that more materialistic individuals might use Facebook in a directly opposite manner to less materialistic individuals: with more materialistic individuals reporting less time spent using Facebook messenger, and sharing links. And future research could further investigate the specific underlying mechanisms being the association between materialists and non-materialists and using Facebook differently, which is particularly under-researched in the case of those higher in non-materialistic values.

Surprisingly, the current research did not find a link between self-reported time checking Facebook and materialistic values, in direct contrast to previous research showing such an association [10]. Additionally, the current research did not show a link between advertising and materialism, in contrast to previous research that suggested such a relationship [13, 16,17,18,19]. Both results were unexpected, but with the specific self-report questions employed (time spent on Facebook in a typical day, and attention paid to time on Facebook) these relationships did not materialize. It is not clear whether these associations do not always bear out in every sample, or whether the specific test questions employed nullified any potential associations; it could be noted that the test questions employed were rather brief. Perhaps more detailed measures of the attention paid to Facebook advertising and time spent using Facebook might have produced different results. But future research could further investigate these questions.

Overall, the current research demonstrated that materialistic values and non-materialistic values are associated to different Facebook usage. The higher the reported importance of materialistic values (extrinsic importance) the more reported time posting photos. Whilst the higher the reported likelihood that these materialistic values (extrinsic likelihood) were to be achieved, the higher the reported time spent posting status updates. Furthermore, materialistic values (both extrinsic importance and extrinsic likelihood) were associated with less reported time spent chatting on Facebook messenger, and less reported time spent sharing links. Conversely, non-materialistic values (intrinsic importance and intrinsic likelihood) were associated with reporting more time spent sharing links, and more time chatting on Facebook messenger, but less time posting photos (for intrinsic importance) and less time posting status updates (for intrinsic likelihood). Future research could investigate the robustness of these associations, as well as further investigating the underlying mechanisms between the association between materialistic and non-materialistic values and the differing usage of Facebook functions.