Abstract
Freshwater scarcity and a shortage of agricultural land constitute the primary limiting factors affecting crop production in numerous arid and semi-arid regions across the globe. This study involves the introduction of three sorghum cultivars (Kaoliang, Sudan grass, and Sweet grass) from China into the dry land of Pakistan, with irrigation using different water qualities (fresh water and saline water) during the rainy season. Parameters including plant height, stem diameter, leaves per plant, number of tillers per plant, specific leaf area, aboveground biomass, below ground biomass, and yield per acre were measured. All plant species exhibited a reduction of 30–40% in their physiological functions, growth parameters, and yield under saline water irrigation compared to freshwater irrigation. Sweet grass and Sudan grass demonstrated higher yields under saline water irrigation compared to Kaoliang, although the overall yields of all three cultivars remained within an acceptable range, while using saline water irrigation. It was concluded that these three introduced sorghum cultivars are well-suited for cultivation in the arid region during the rainy season, particularly when irrigated with saline water. This study offers an eco-friendly approach to utilizing dry land resources for agricultural production, thereby assisting local communities in sustaining their livelihoods.
1 Introduction
Currently, the developing nations within the Mediterranean Basin are grappling with significant environmental challenges driven by factors such as rapid population growth, accelerated urbanization, and inadequacies in water management services [1].
Climate change in the Mediterranean region has led to freshwater scarcity, primarily due to increased temperatures, reduced rainfall, and higher rates of evapotranspiration [2]. In the arid and semi-arid regions of the Mediterranean, where the main problem is intrusion of sea water due to over pumping of groundwater, sea water migrates and deteriorates groundwater quality [3]. Furthermore, climate changes also exhibit many ecological constraints such as poor soil quality, land degradation and desertification that negatively impact the sustainability of agriculture in arid and semi-arid regions [4,5]. In numerous arid and semi-arid regions, the abundance of saline water resources contributes to soil salinization through capillary up-flow, wherein water and salt move towards the surface [6].
The Tharparker desert, situated in an arid region in the southern part of Pakistan’s Sindh province, have climatic conditions similar to Mediterranean region. Tharparker desert face many climatic factors such as high evapotranspiration rates, limited rainfall, extensive saline water resources, due to sea water intrusion and elevated temperatures [7]. Cultivating crops and fostering vegetation growth in this area is exceedingly challenging due to the harsh environment and the prevalence of saline water resources [8]. In this region, farmers predominantly rely on the rainy season to cultivate fodder and other short-duration crops. The inhabitants of the arid region largely derive their livelihoods from livestock rearing and agriculture [9]. Consequently, farmers in arid region prefer to grow fodder crops to sustain their livestock animals. Due to temperature variations, rainfall is disturbed, this factor forces farmers in the arid regions to use low quality water like saline water for agriculture [10].
Achieving sustainable agriculture in arid regions necessitates the discovery of optimal cultivation techniques and the utilization of the best irrigation methods, particularly through the implementation of salt-tolerant crop varieties [11,12]. The imposition of salt stress due to saline irrigation significantly impedes the growth and development of many plants [12]. Saline water irrigation primarily reduces water potential and nutrient uptake, subsequently diminishing photosynthetic activity, and ultimately leading to decreased plant growth [13,14]. However, in the case of many crops, it remains unclear which specific factors in arid region farming contribute most to the reduction in crop growth by constraining physiological traits under saline water irrigation [15,16]. Conversely, various factors have been identified that induce positive changes in plant physiological traits, enabling them to cope with salt stress and maintain steady growth under such challenging conditions [17].
Various irrigation, cultivation techniques, and management practices have been implemented in arid regions to promote sustainable agriculture all over the world [18]. Engineering and reclamation methods have been employed to mitigate the adverse effects of salts on crop growth [19–21]. Additionally, several soil amendment techniques, including the use of biochar, fertilizers, and gypsum, have been utilized to reclaim saline soil and enhance crop growth [22]. However, these techniques may not be readily adopted by impoverished farmers due to their high initial investment costs [23]. To address salinity issues, various irrigation techniques have been employed, flood irrigation and furrow irrigation being among the most commonly utilized methods to enhance soil leaching from the rhizosphere and regulate salt balance [24]. While these methods need large amount of fresh water resources, fresh water availability is also the main issue in arid and semi-arid region [25]. Consequently, the introduction of salt-tolerant plant species with low water requirement under saline conditions holds significant importance in such regions. In this regard, the identification of plants with low uptake of toxic ions under saline conditions is of paramount importance [26].
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.)) stands out as one of the most crucial fodder crops cultivated in the arid-regions during the rainy season due to its remarkable ability to thrive in dry and drought-prone environments [27]. Its resilience extends to hot climates and saline irrigation, making it a preferred choice for livestock feed in arid regions owing to its low water requirement, minimal soil dependency, high-yield potential under harsh climatic conditions, and superior forage quality [28]. In this research endeavor, three distinct sorghum cultivars (Kaoliang, Sudan grass, and Sweet grass) were introduced into the arid region. The primary objective of this study is to assess the physiological and morphological responses of these introduced cultivars within the context of the arid region during the rainy season, particularly under saline water irrigation. The ultimate aim is to identify the most suitable introduced cultivars among the three under dry land conditions, especially when subjected to saline water irrigation.
2 Materials and methods
2.1 Experimental field conditions
A field study was undertaken at the Sindh Engro Coal Mining Company site situated in Thar desert block II, approximately 10 km away from Islamkot, Thar Parkar, Sindh, Pakistan. The study spanned from June 20th to October 1st, 2023. The experimental location experiences extreme weather conditions characterized by prolonged scorching summers, reaching maximum temperatures close to 48°C, and brief winters with minimum temperatures around 1.2°C. Annual precipitation in this area totals approximately 100 mm, while annual evaporation amounts to 2,600 mm. The soil at this experimental site is predominantly arid and sandy, exhibiting minimal nutrient content, as indicated in Table 1.
Soil physical and chemical properties
| EC (dS m−1) | Texture | Organic carbon (%) | pH | NO3 (mg kg−1) | NH4 (mg kg−1) | Cl (mg kg−1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0.167 | Loamy sandy | 0.30 | 6.54 | 260.326 | 0.012 | 4.277 |
2.2 Experimental design
The seeds of three sorghum cultivars, Kaoliang, Sudan grass, and Sweet grass has been brought from China for experimental study in arid region of Pakistan. For this experiment, healthy seeds of equal size of Kaoliang, Sudan grass, and Sweet grass were carefully chosen. These seeds were sown in the experimental field using a randomized complete split plot design, with three replicates for each treatment. Plant spacing was maintained at 1 ft × 1 ft within each plot, and at 20 ft × 20 ft is one plot total size. The setup of the experiment and the location in the field have been depicted in Figure 1. The plants density was 71,136 plants per hectare.
The experimental design is represented in (a). The field location is indicated in (b). Source: Google map, accessed on October 20, 2023. Note: SECMC, Sindh Engro Coal Mining company.
Before sowing the seeds, the field underwent preparation, which included the addition of urea fertilizer at a rate of 240 kg ha−1, as detailed in previous studies [17,29]. During the germination and seedling establishment phase, fresh water was given for a duration of 20 days. To investigate the impact of saline water irrigation on the growth of these three fodder crop cultivars, 20 days after seed sowing, irrigation was commenced. One set of these three plant cultivars received saline water, while another group was irrigated with fresh or pure water, serving as the control. The physical and chemical properties of both fresh water and saline water used in the experiment are outlined in Table 2.
Water quality parameters
| Water quality | EC (dS m−1) | Total dissolved solid (mg L−1) | Nitrate (mg L−1) | Nitrite (mg L−1) | Chloride (mg L−1) | Fluoride (mg L−1) | Manganese (mg L−1) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Saline water | 4.368 | 6,240 | 0.4 | 0.002 | 2231.03 | 1.15 | 0.006 |
| Fresh water | 0.357 | 510 | 0.4 | 0.015 | 196.75 | 0.35 | 0.006 |
The irrigation process utilized a drip irrigation system, with a water meter installed on the primary irrigation pipeline to regulate both water and fertilizer application frequencies. Each emitter in the drip line was calibrated to discharge water at a rate of 3 L h−1. During the watering cycles for both fully saline water irrigation and fresh water irrigation, the drip irrigation system was operated for 5 min each time to ensure a consistent field watering at the rate of 6 mm day−1.
The maximum and minimum temperature during the entire experiment period and rainfall are shown in Figure 2.
Maximum and minimum temperature and rainfall during the entire experiment period.
2.3 Growth traits
After 110 days of plant growth, three plants of each plant cultivars of every replicate under saline water and fresh water treatments were selected. Plant height and stem diameter of every selected plant was measured with a measuring tape. The number of leaves and number of tillers in every selected plant was counted. Five leaves of these selected plants were selected in every plant cultivar of each treatment and leaf area of these selected leaves were measured with ImageJ software. All these selected plants of every plant cultivar in each treatment have been harvested and root lengths of these plants were measured with measuring tape. After harvesting shoot, the number of leaves and roots were separated for each plant. Fresh weight of leaves, shoots, and roots of each plant was measured with weight balance. Put all these plants into oven until constant weight obtained to measure dry biomass [30,31]. After oven dry, the dry biomass of leaves, shoots, and roots of each plant was weighed using a weight balance. Specific leaf area (SLA) was calculated using equation (1).
2.4 Statistical analysis
Normality and homogeneity of variances have been checked in all growth trait parameters by using Shapiro-Wilk test and Levene’s test. A two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to check the effect of two factors (plant species and water treatments) and their interaction on the combined morphological and physiological traits. Furthermore, a two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s test was performed to check the significant difference in different growth traits within and between plant cultivars. ANOVA was performed by using SPSS version 22.0 (SPSS Inc., IL, USA). All graphs and Variance partitioning analysis (VPA) were made in origin pro 2021 to investigate variation between growth and physiological traits of plant cultivars within water treatments. A circular heat map was generated to investigate the correlation among different growth parameters within and between plant cultivars. Finally principal component analysis (PCA) was used to investigate the relationship between plant varieties and growth traits. The circular heat map and PCA were performed by using R version 4.1.1.
3 Results
3.1 Physiological traits under water treatments
Throughout the entire experimental period, there were 7 days of rainfall. Consequently, saline water irrigation was not administered on these days, as the rainwater sufficiently met the water demands of the crops. Physiological traits of all three sorghum cultivars are significantly effective by water treatments and plant cultivars as shown in Table 3. Physiological traits under interaction effects are also significantly different except stem diameter and plant height, which are non-significant as shown in Table 3.
Physiological traits under water treatments
| Factors | PH | SD | Leaves | Tiller | RL | SLA |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| T | F = 23.76** | F = 0.867NS | F = 34.11** | F = 28.90** | F = 8.18* | 5.517* |
| S | F = 4.542* | F = 4.653* | F = 48.046** | F = 41.7** | F = 7.268* | 123.79** |
| T*S | F = 0.031NS | F = 0.459 | F = 10.752* | F = 12.1* | F = 9.091* | 12.79** |
Significant differences (at *< 0.05, **< 0.01, NS ≥ 0.05) Note: T = Treatments, S = Species, PH = Plant height, SD = Stem diameter, RL = Root length, SLA = Specific leaf area.
Compared with fresh water irrigation, plant height of all three plant cultivars has significantly 20–25% reduction under saline water irrigation. Compared within plant cultivars, plant height was also significantly different among all cultivars, and Sweet grass was taller compared to all other cultivars as shown in Figure 3a. Compared with water treatments and within plant cultivars, stem diameter was non-significant among all as shown in Figure 3b. Similarly root length of Kaoliang and Sweet grass too had same trend like stem diameter but Sudan grass was significantly different among water treatments but non-significant within plant cultivars as shown in Figure 3c. Number of leaves per plant among all cultivars are significantly different and Sudan grass has a 50% more leaves under fresh water irrigation as compared to other plant cultivars. Sudan grass and Kaoliang have 50 and 20%, respectively, more leaves per plant under fresh water irrigation as compared to saline water irrigation but Sweet grass has the same trend in both water treatments as shown in Figure 3d. Number of tillers per plant in every plant cultivars have significant different results within water treatments. Among all plant cultivars within saline water irrigation, the number of tillers per plant was also significantly different as shown in Figure 3e. Sweet grass had more number of tillers per plant as compared to other plant cultivars within saline water irrigation. Kaoliang has significantly different SLAs within water treatments, but on the other hand, Sweet grass and Sudan grass have non-significant results. Among all plant cultivars under saline water irrigation, Kaoliang SLA is 30% lesser than Sweet grass and Sudan grass as shown in Figure 3f.
Physiological performance of three sorghum cultivars under different water treatments and within cultivars. (a) Plant height, (b) stem diameter, (c) root length, (d) leaves per plant, (e) tiller per plant, and (f) specific leaf area. Different letters above the bars indicate a significant difference (P < 0.05) between values as assessed by two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s HSD test within water treatments. The horizontal line with stars above each graph indicates significant differences (*<0.05, **<0.01, NS ≥ 0.05) between cultivars.
3.2 Biomass response under water treatments
At the end of the experiment, fresh and dry biomass of different growth parameters were measured among all three plant cultivars. Fresh and dry biomass of root and stem of all three plant cultivars within water treatments and within cultivars were significantly different but fresh and dry biomass of leaves within water treatments were non-significant, while within plant cultivars they were significant as shown in Table 4. The interaction effects of water treatments and plant cultivars have mostly non-significant results, only fresh and dry biomass of roots have significant results in Table 4.
Growth traits under water treatments
| Factors | LFB | RFB | SFB | LDB | RDB | SDB | Yield |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| T | F = 2.606NS | F = 332.38** | F = 18.00** | F = 2.606NS | F = 332.38** | F = 18.00* | 32.72** |
| S | F = 12.922** | F = 68.044** | F = 20.621** | F = 12.922** | F = 68.044** | F = 20.621** | 21.21** |
| T*S | F = 0.559NS | F = 40.113** | F = 3.322NS | F = 0.559NS | F = 40.113* | F = 3.322NS | 3.91* |
Significant differences (at * < 0.05, ** < 0.01, NS ≥ 0.05) Note: T = Treatments, S = Species, PH = Plant height, SD = Stem diameter, RL = Root length, SLA = Specific leaf area.
Compared within water treatments and within plant cultivars fresh and dry biomass of leaves of every plant species are significantly different than each other and also significantly different within water treatments as shown in Figure 4a and d. Similar trend is shown by fresh and dry biomass of roots as shown in Figure 4b and e. Kaoliang and Sudan grass have 50% reduction in fresh and dry biomass of roots in saline water treatment as compared with fresh water treatment but Sweet grass has a reduction of only 20% in saline water treatment as compared to fresh water treatment. Kaoliang and Sudan grass have significant results for the fresh and dry biomass of shoots within water treatments, but Sweet grass has a non-significant result as shown in Figure 4c and f. Fresh and dry biomass of shoots under saline water irrigation between Sweet grass and Sudan grass are non-significant but Kaoliang was significant as compared with other plant cultivars.
Biomass response of three sorghum cultivars under different water treatments and within cultivars. (a) fresh biomass of leaves per plant, (b) fresh biomass of roots per plant, (c) fresh biomass of shoots per plant, (d) dry biomass of leaves per plant, (e) dry biomass of roots per plant, and (f) dry biomass of shoots per plant. Different letters above the bars indicate a significant difference (P < 0.05) between values as assessed by two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s HSD test within water treatments. The horizontal line with stars above each graph indicates significant differences (*<0.05, **<0.01, NS ≥ 0.05) between cultivars.
3.3 Yield response under water treatments
Yield had highly significant results within water treatments, plant cultivars, and their interaction. Yield within plant cultivars are significantly different among every water treatment as shown in Figure 5. Kaoliang had 30% reduction in yield under saline water as compared with fresh water treatment. Similarly Sudan and Sweet grass showed 37–18% reduction in yield under saline water compared with fresh water treatment as shown in Figure 5. Sudan grass and Sweet grass have similar yield response under saline water irrigation but Kaoliang has more reduction in yield as compared with these two plant cultivars under saline water irrigation.
Yield response of three sorghum cultivars under different water treatments and within cultivars. Different letters above the bars indicate a significant difference (P < 0.05) between values as assessed by two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s HSD test within water treatments. The horizontal line with stars above each graph indicates significant differences (*<0.05, **<0.01, NS ≥ 0.05) between cultivars.
3.4 Associations between physiological traits and biomass production under water treatments
VPA revealed that physiological traits, i.e., plant height, stem diameter, leaves per plant, tillers per plant, and SLA were 18, 13, 14, 7, and 18% of the variation (i.e., where the plots overlap), respectively, in plant performance of different plant cultivars in response to water treatments as shown in Figure 6a. Biomass production traits, i.e., dry biomass of leaves, roots, and shoots were 18, 17, and 17%, respectively, of the variation in plant performance of different plant cultivars under water treatments as shown in Figure 6b.
Results of VPA showing the effects of water treatments within cultivars. (a) Physiological traits and (b) biomass.
A cluster heat map was generated to evaluate the relationship between plant physiological traits and biomass production between different plant cultivars under water treatments. This analysis revealed that all physiological traits have great impact on plant biomass production with positive correlation. Sweet grass and Sudan grass have highly positive impact on fresh weight of shoot as compared with Kaoliang as shown in Figure 7. Rest of the traits have similar results in all these plant species.
Cluster heat map representing the relationship between physiological traits and growth response of three sorghum plant cultivars within different water treatments. Green color represents week positive correlation, red represents the strong positive correlation, and yellow represents no correlation. PH = plant height, SD = stem diameter, RL = root length, SLA = specific leaf area, NT = number of tiller per plant, NL = Number of leaves per plant, LFB = leaves fresh biomass, RFB = roots fresh biomass, SFB = shoot fresh biomass, LDB = leaves dry biomass, RDB = root dry biomass, and SDB = shoot dry biomass.
PCA revealed significant changes in physiological and growth traits of these three plant cultivars under water treatments as shown in Figure 8. The PCA showed 62.8 and 18.3% of the variation explained by PCA1 and PCA2, respectively. There was a high degree of overlap between plant species and growth trails under water treatments. The most dominant plant species is Sudan grass as compared to Kaoliang and Sweet grass because both of the species found in the area of Sudan grass as shown in Figure 8. On the other hand, least dominant plant species is Kaoliang.
PCA of three sorghum cultivars based on their physiological traits and biomass production. PH = plant height, SD = stem diameter, RL = root length, SLA = specific leaf area, NT = number of tillers per plant, NL = number of leaves per plant, LFB = leaves fresh biomass, RFB = root fresh biomass, SFB = shoot fresh biomass, LDB = leaves dry biomass, RDB = root dry biomass, and SDB = shoot dry biomass.
4 Discussion
The climate change in last 20 years had a great influence in the arid and semi-arid region of the Mediterranean ecosystems due to increase in temperature, variation in rainfall, poor soil quality, and water scarcity [32,33]. Furthermore, due to over pumping of ground water for drinking and agriculture, sea water intrusion is the other main factor in the coastal ecosystems [34]. Under these conditions, farmers in the arid region are trying to utilize saline water resources along with poor soil quality by growing salt tolerant and drought tolerant plant species [35,36]. For this purpose, plant physiological and growth responses are very important factors when assessing the growth of introduced species into arid-region under higher temperature and saline water irrigation [37]. Saline water irrigation is a critical factor for plant survival and growth response under arid conditions [38]. In higher temperatures, plants required more water for optimal growth, but in arid regions, limited fresh water availability forces farmers to use saline water for irrigation [39]. However, the increased use of saline water in irrigation leads to higher salt accumulation near the root zone, hindering water absorption and ultimately reducing plant growth [40]. In the current study, significant changes among plant height, stem diameter, leaves per plant, tillers per plant, root length, and SLA have been examined in every plant cultivars within water treatments and also within plant cultivars as shown in Figure 3. The decrease in plant physiological response are mostly found due to saline water irrigation, because continuous use of saline water by plant for growth development increases the amount of salts in the leaves and shoots [14,41]. When the amount of salts in the leaves and shoots are increased, then plants stop taking water because water moves from high concentration to low concentration [13]. However root length of these three sorghum plant cultivars are equal and shorter than that of plants in fresh water treatment, Figure 3c. This may be due to the salts accumulation in the soil due to saline water irrigation [24]. Mostly plants in arid regions does not develop their roots in areas with higher salinity and they like to build theirroots in areas under soil with having less EC < 1 mS cm−1 [42,43]. In addition, the experimental results show that rainwater under saline water irrigation inhibits the effects of salts on root growth [44], hence most of the sorghum cultivars in this study have equal root length compared with fresh water irrigation. It could be that rainwater promoted the root vigor and growth under dry land conditions to alleviate the effect of salts near root zone [45]. There might be two main reasons for this phenomenon. First, rainwater could stimulate various essential processes in plants such as metabolism, cell division, and differentiation, ultimately encouraging root growth [13]. Second, rainwater irrigation might help in reducing soil salts through leaching, thereby creating a more favorable growth environment for sorghum plant cultivars’ root systems [46]. Zhao et al. [44] also noted an increase in both the quantity and length of rice seedling roots, when irrigated with a combination of rainwater and saline water showing a 21.74 and 20.62% rise, respectively, compared to using only saline water. The distinction between plant height and root length reveals the allocation strategy of absorbed nutrients during various growth stages [47]. This highlights the significance of examining both plant root length and plant height, as it provides crucial insights into how plant assimilates are distributed within the plant structure [29]. In this study, plant height is increasing as compared to root length with the availability of saline water under plant tolerant range, which describes how the biomass allocation strategy of these three sorghum plant cultivars changed based on the water quality [48]. When the saline water salts concentrate within the tolerant ranges of plant species, then the plant allocates more aboveground biomass to maximize the capture of light and maintain proper growth. When salt concentrations are below plant tolerant range, then plants allocate more resources to build below ground biomass to get water with less salts to sustain its growth [49]. In this study, the plant height of the three sorghum cultivars under saline water irrigation was only 24% shorter compared to fresh water irrigation, demonstrating the survival of these cultivars in arid environments.
Climate change has a very serious effect in the arid region of the Mediterranean, where ground water is the main source for irrigating the crops [50,51]. Climate change effects increase the water demand in the arid regions due to higher temperature and higher rate of evapotranspiration [52]. These climatic factors allow farmers to utilize saline water resources to fulfil crops’ water requirements under these arid regions [24,53]. According to this, water stands as the paramount factor dictating the growth and progression of plants within arid and semi-arid region [54]. In this study, type of irrigation has significant effect on growth like dry biomass of leaves, shoots, and roots of all these plant cultivars as shown in Figure 4. These reduction in growth are not only due to saline water irrigation but also due to many ecological factors that cannot be ignored like soil conditions, temperature etc. [31,37]. During peak summer season in arid region, air temperature gradually increases, surface evaporation gets intense, water content in the soil surface decreases, and salts percentage in the soil surface increases that restrict the growth of plant in arid regions. Under these conditions, percentage of saline water irrigation should be increased according to the requirement of the plant so that excess amount of salt leach down within the root zone [55].
The biomass per plant serves as a crucial and extensively utilized agronomic indicator for fodder yield. It elucidates the connection between yield and biomass while also assessing the suitability of farmland management strategies in varying environmental conditions [56,57]. In this study, yield of every plant cultivars was reduced 30–40% under saline water irrigation as compared to fresh water irrigation as shown in Figure 5. Therefore, according to the results of this study, it can be described that these newly introduced sorghum plant cultivars having a strong tendency to grow under arid regions along with saline water irrigation by maintaining stable growth is the new feature of dry land farming.
5 Conclusion
Climate change variability has a great impact in the arid region of Mediterranean or regions with similar conditions due to higher temperature, poor soil quality, water scarcity, and higher rate of evapotranspiration. These climate change factors allow farmers in the arid regions to grow salts and drought tolerant plant species under saline irrigation with low water requirement. For this purpose, three Sorghum plant cultivars (Kaoliang, Sweet grass, and Sudan grass) were introduced in the arid region under saline irrigation. All these three cultivars survived and grew very well in the arid region during raining season along with saline irrigation. This study provides a very easy and eco-friendly method to utilize dry land for agriculture by introducing different salt tolerant and drought tolerant, high yield crops.
Acknowledgements
We acknowledged China national key R&D plan and intergovernmental international scientific and technological innovation cooperation program to support this study.
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Funding information: This work was supported by Key projects of national key R & D plan and intergovernmental international scientific and technological innovation cooperation (2021YFE0101100).
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Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and consented to its submission to the journal, reviewed all the results and approved the final version of the manuscript. Conceptualization: AA; methodology: AA and UAB; software: RA, AA, and NH; validation: MW; formal analysis: AA, AA, and AHK; resources: MW; data curation: RA; writing - original draft: AA; writing - review and editing: RA; supervision: MW; project administration: MW; and funding acquisition: AA.
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Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.
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Data availability statement: Data will be provided on demand.
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