Emergens

For alternative betydninger, se Emergens (flertydig). (Se også artikler, som begynder med Emergens)

Indenfor filosofi, systemteori, videnskab og kunst er emergens processen hvorved større entiteter, helheder, mønstre og regulariteter opstår gennem vekselvirkning mellem mindre eller simplere entiteter, selvom disse ikke selv udviser eller besidder sådanne egenskaber.

Emergens er central i teorier af integrationsniveauer og af komplekse systemer. Fx bliver fænomenet liv studeret i biologi almindeligvis opfatter som et emergent egenskab af interagerende molekyler, som studeres i kemi - og molekylers fænomener skyldes interaktioner mellem elementarpartikler, som igen modelleres i partikelfysik. Neurobiologiske fænomener bliver ofte opfattet som grundlag for psykologiske fænomener, som økonomiske fænomener derfor baserer sig på.

Indenfor filosofi refererer emergens typisk til emergentisme. Næsten alle former for emergentisme omfatter en form for epistemisk eller ontologisk irreducibilitet til de lavere niveauer.^[1]

Ideen om emergens har eksisteret siden i hvert fald Aristoteles.^[2] John Stuart Mill^[3] og Julian Huxley^[4] er to af mange videnskabsfolk og filosoffer, som har skrevet om begrebet.

Termen "emergens" blev navngivet af filosoffen G. H. Lewes, som skrev:

"Every resultant is either a sum or a difference of the co-operant forces; their sum, when their directions are the same -- their difference, when their directions are contrary. Further, every resultant is clearly traceable in its components, because these are homogeneous and commensurable. It is otherwise with emergents, when, instead of adding measurable motion to measurable motion, or things of one kind to other individuals of their kind, there is a co-operation of things of unlike kinds. The emergent is unlike its components insofar as these are incommensurable, and it cannot be reduced to their sum or their difference."^[5][6]

Økonomen Jeffrey Goldstein gav den nuværende definition af emergens i tidskriftet Emergence.^[7] Goldstein definerede oprindeligt emergens som: "the arising of novel and coherent structures, patterns and properties during the process of self-organization in complex systems".

Goldstein's definition kan yderligere udvide detajleringsgraden i beskrivelsen:

"The common characteristics are: (1) radical novelty (features not previously observed in systems); (2) coherence or correlation (meaning integrated wholes that maintain themselves over some period of time); (3) A global or macro "level" (i.e. there is some property of "wholeness"); (4) it is the product of a dynamical process (it evolves); and (5) it is "ostensive" (it can be perceived)." For good measure, Goldstein throws in supervenience.^[8]

System videnskabsmanden Peter Corning siger at levende systemer ikke kan reduceres til de underliggende fysiklove:

Rules, or laws, have no causal efficacy; they do not in fact “generate” anything. They serve merely to describe regularities and consistent relationships in nature. These patterns may be very illuminating and important, but the underlying causal agencies must be separately specified (though often they are not). But that aside, the game of chess illustrates ... why any laws or rules of emergence and evolution are insufficient. Even in a chess game, you cannot use the rules to predict “history” — i.e., the course of any given game. Indeed, you cannot even reliably predict the next move in a chess game. Why? Because the “system” involves more than the rules of the game. It also includes the players and their unfolding, moment-by-moment decisions among a very large number of available options at each choice point. The game of chess is inescapably historical, even though it is also constrained and shaped by a set of rules, not to mention the laws of physics. Moreover, and this is a key point, the game of chess is also shaped by teleonomic, cybernetic, feedback-driven influences. It is not simply a self-ordered process; it involves an organized, “purposeful” activity.^[8]

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• Bedau, Mark A. (1997), Weak Emergence (PDF), arkiveret (PDF) fra originalen 4. marts 2016, hentet 17. januar 2016
• Corning, Peter A. (1983), The Synergism Hypothesis: A Theory of Progressive Evolution, New York: McGraw-Hill
• Koestler, Arthur (1969), A. Koestler & J. R. Smythies (red.), Beyond Reductionism: New Perspectives in the Life Sciences, London: Hutchinson
• Laughlin, Robert (2005), A Different Universe: Reinventing Physics from the Bottom Down, Basic Books, ISBN 0-465-03828-X

• Alexander, V. N. (2011). The Biologist’s Mistress: Rethinking Self-Organization in Art, Literature and Nature. Litchfield Park AZ: Emergent Publications.
• Anderson, P.W. (1972), "More is Different: Broken Symmetry and the Nature of the Hierarchical Structure of Science" (PDF), Science, 177 (4047): 393-396, Bibcode:1972Sci...177..393A, doi:10.1126/science.177.4047.393, PMID 17796623, arkiveret (PDF) fra originalen 22. november 2019, hentet 17. januar 2016
• Barabási, Albert-László; Jeong, Hawoong; Albert, Réka (1999), "The Diameter of the World Wide Web", Nature, 401 (6749): 130-131, arXiv:cond-mat/9907038, Bibcode:1999Natur.401..130A, doi:10.1038/43601
• Bar-Yam, Yaneer (2004), "A Mathematical Theory of Strong Emergence using Multiscale Variety" (PDF), Complexity, 9 (6): 15-24, doi:10.1002/cplx.20029, arkiveret (PDF) fra originalen 24. marts 2016, hentet 17. januar 2016
• Bateson, Gregory (1972), Steps to an Ecology of Mind, Ballantine Books, ISBN 0-226-03905-6
• Batty, Michael (2005), Cities and Complexity, MIT Press, ISBN 0-262-52479-1
• Bedau, Mark A. (1997)."Weak Emergence" Arkiveret 4. marts 2016 hos Wayback Machine.
• Blitz, David. (1992). Emergent Evolution: Qualitative Novelty and the Levels of Reality. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic.
• Bunge, Mario Augusto (2003), Emergence and Convergence: Qualitiative Novelty and the Unity of Knowledge, Toronto: University of Toronto Press
• Chalmers, David J. (2002). "Strong and Weak Emergence" http://consc.net/papers/emergence.pdf Arkiveret 19. december 2006 hos Wayback Machine Republished in P. Clayton and P. Davies, eds. (2006) The Re-Emergence of Emergence. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Philip Clayton (2005). Mind and Emergence: From Quantum to Consciousness Oxford: OUP, ISBN 978-0-19-927252-5
• Philip Clayton & Paul Davies (eds.) (2006). The Re-Emergence of Emergence: The Emergentist Hypothesis from Science to Religion Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Corning, Peter A. (2005). "Holistic Darwinism: Synergy, Cybernetics and the Bioeconomics of Evolution." Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
• Crutchfield, James P. (1994), "Special issue on the Proceedings of the Oji International Seminar: Complex Systems — from Complex Dynamics to Artificial Reality" (PDF), Physica D, 75: 11-54, Bibcode:1994PhyD...75...11C, doi:10.1016/0167-2789(94)90273-9, arkiveret (PDF) fra originalen 25. marts 2009, hentet 17. januar 2016 {{citation}}: |contribution= ignoreret (hjælp)
• Felipe Cucker and Stephen Smale (2007), The Japanese Journal of Mathematics, The Mathematics of Emergence Arkiveret 3. marts 2016 hos Wayback Machine
• Delsemme, Armand (1998), Our Cosmic Origins: From the Big Bang to the Emergence of Life and Intelligence, Cambridge University Press
• De Wolf, Tom; Holvoet, Tom (2005), "Emergence Versus Self-Organisation: Different Concepts but Promising When Combined", Engineering Self Organising Systems: Methodologies and Applications, Lecture Notes in Computer Science: 3464, s. 1-15, doi:10.1007/11494676_1 (Webside ikke længere tilgængelig)
• Fromm, Jochen (2004), The Emergence of Complexity, Kassel University Press, ISBN 3-89958-069-9, arkiveret fra originalen 8. marts 2005, hentet 17. januar 2016* Fromm, Jochen (2005a), Types and Forms of Emergence, arXiv, arXiv:nlin.AO/0506028
• Fromm, Jochen (2005b), Ten Questions about Emergence, arXiv, arXiv:nlin.AO/0509049
• Goodwin, Brian (2001), How the Leopard Changed Its Spots: The Evolution of Complexity, Princeton University Press
• Goldstein, Jeffrey (1999), "Emergence as a Construct: History and Issues" (PDF), Emergence: Complexity and Organization, 1 (1): 49-72, doi:10.1207/s15327000em0101_4, arkiveret (PDF) fra originalen 26. marts 2012, hentet 17. januar 2016
• Haag, James W. (2008). Emergent Freedom: Naturalizing Free Will Goettingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, ISBN 978-3-525-56988-7
• Hayek, Friedrich (1973), Law, Legislation and Liberty, ISBN 0-226-32086-3
• Hofstadter, Douglas R. (1979), Gödel, Escher, Bach: an Eternal Golden Braid, Harvester Press
• Holland, John H. (1998), Emergence from Chaos to Order, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-7382-0142-1
• Holman, Peggy. (2010). Engaging Emergence: Turning upheaval into opportunity. San Francisco: Barrett-Koehler. ISBN 978-1-60509-521-9
• Hopfield, John J. (1982), "Neural networks and physical systems with emergent collective computational abilities", Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 79 (8): 2554-2558, Bibcode:1982PNAS...79.2554H, doi:10.1073/pnas.79.8.2554, PMC 346238, PMID 6953413
• Hopper, P. 1998. Emergent Grammar. In: Tomasello, M. eds. 1998. The new psychology of language: Cognitive and functional approaches to language structure. Mahwah, NJ: Earlbaum, pp. 155–176.
• Huxley, Julian S.; Huxley, Thomas Henry (1947), Evolution and Ethics: 1893-1943, London, 1947: The Pilot Press, s. 120{{citation}}: CS1-vedligeholdelse: location (link)
• Johnson, Steven Berlin (2001), Emergence: The Connected Lives of Ants, Brains, Cities, and Software, Scribner's, ISBN 0-684-86876-8
• Kauffman, Stuart (1993), The Origins of Order: Self-Organization and Selection in Evolution, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-507951-5
• Keller, Rudi (1994), On Language Change: The Invisible Hand in Language, London/New York: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-07671-4
• Kauffman, Stuart (1995), At Home in the Universe, New York: Oxford University Press
• Kelly, Kevin (1994), Out of Control: The New Biology of Machines, Social Systems, and the Economic World, Perseus Books, ISBN 0-201-48340-8
• Koestler, Arthur (1969), A. Koestler & J. R. Smythies (red.), Beyond Reductionism: New Perspectives in the Life Sciences, London: Hutchinson
• Korotayev, A.; Malkov, A.; Khaltourina, D. (2006), Introduction to Social Macrodynamics: Compact Macromodels of the World System Growth, Moscow: URSS, ISBN 5-484-00414-4, arkiveret (PDF) fra originalen 6. juli 2009, hentet 17. januar 2016
• Krugman, Paul (1996), The Self-organizing Economy, Oxford: Blackwell, ISBN 1-55786-698-8, ISBN 0-87609-177-X
• Laughlin, Robert (2005), A Different Universe: Reinventing Physics from the Bottom Down, Basic Books, ISBN 0-465-03828-X
• Leland, W.E.; Willinger, M.S.; Taqqu, M.S.; Wilson, D.V. (1994), "On the self-similar nature of Ethernet traffic (extended version)", IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, 2: 1-15, doi:10.1109/90.282603
• Lewes, G. H. (1875), Problems of Life and Mind (First Series), vol. 2, London: Trübner, ISBN 1-4255-5578-0
• Lewin, Roger (2000), Complexity - Life at the Edge of Chaos (second udgave), University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-47654-5, ISBN 0-226-47655-3
• Ignazio Licata & Ammar Sakaji (eds) (2008). Physics of Emergence and Organization Arkiveret 24. august 2011 hos Wayback Machine, ISBN 978-981-277-994-6, World Scientific and Imperial College Press.
• Marshall, Stephen (2009), Cities Design and Evolution, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-42329-8, ISBN 0-415-42329-5
• Mill, John Stuart (1843), "On the Composition of Causes", A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive (1872 udgave), London: John W. Parker and Son, s. 371
• Morowitz, Harold J. (2002), The Emergence of Everything: How the World Became Complex, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-513513-X
• Pearce, Michael J. (2015), Art in the Age of Emergence., Cambridge Scholars Publishing, ISBN 1-443-87057-9, ISBN 1-443-87057-9
• Ritchey, Tom (2014), "On a Morphology of Theories of Emergence" (PDF), Acta Morphologica Generalis, 3 (3), arkiveret (PDF) fra originalen 22. december 2015, hentet 17. januar 2016
• Ryan, Alex J. (2006), "Emergence is Coupled to Scope, not Level", Complexity, arXiv, (to be submitted), arXiv:nlin.AO/0609011
• Schelling, Thomas C. (1978), Micromotives and Macrobehaviour, W. W. Norton
• Jackie (Jianhong) Shen (2008), Cucker–Smale Flocking Emergence under Hierarchical Leadership In: SIAM J. Applied Math., 68:3,
• Smith, John Maynard; Szathmáry, Eörs (1997), The Major Transitions in Evolution, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-850294-X
• Smith, Reginald D. (2008), The Dynamics of Internet Traffic: Self-Similarity, Self-Organization, and Complex Phenomena, vol. 0807, arXiv, s. 3374, arXiv:0807.3374, Bibcode:2008arXiv0807.3374S
• Solé, Ricard and Goodwin, Brian (2000) Signs of life: how complexity pervades biology, Basic Books, New York.
• Steels, Luc (1990), "Towards a Theory of Emergent Functionality", i Jean-Arcady Meyer; Stewart W. Wilson (red.), From Animals to Animats (Proceedings of the First International Conference on Simulation of Adaptive behaviour), Cambridge, MA & London, England: Bradford Books (MIT Press), s. 451-461, arkiveret fra originalen 13. februar 2007, hentet 17. januar 2016
• Wan, Poe Yu-ze (2011), "Emergence a la Systems Theory: Epistemological Totalausschluss or Ontological Novelty?", Philosophy of the Social Sciences, 41(2), s. 178-210, arkiveret fra originalen 4. marts 2016, hentet 17. januar 2016
• Wan, Poe Yu-ze (2011), Reframing the Social: Emergentist Systemism and Social Theory, Ashgate Publishing, arkiveret fra originalen 11. marts 2013, hentet 17. januar 2016
• Weinstock, Michael (2010), The Architecture of Emergence - the evolution of form in Nature and Civilisation, John Wiley and Sons, ISBN 0-470-06633-4[1] Arkiveret 12. september 2011 hos Wayback Machine
• Wolfram, Stephen (2002), A New Kind of Science, ISBN 1-57955-008-8
• Young, Louise B. (2002), The Unfinished Universe, ISBN 0-19-508039-4

Wikimedia Commons har medier relateret til: Emergens

• The Emergent Universe Arkiveret 21. marts 2019 hos Wayback Machine: An interactive introduction to emergent phenomena, from ant colonies to Alzheimer's.
• Exploring Emergence Arkiveret 5. december 2002 hos Wayback Machine: An introduction to emergence using CA and Conway's Game of Life from the MIT Media Lab
• ISCE group Arkiveret 28. marts 2018 hos Wayback Machine: Institute for the Study of Coherence and Emergence.
• Towards modeling of emergence Arkiveret 7. april 2018 hos Wayback Machine: lecture slides from Helsinki University of Technology
• Biomimetic Architecture - Emergence applied to building and construction Arkiveret 7. februar 2011 hos Wayback Machine