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Search Results (10,158)

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12 pages, 3048 KiB  
Article
Development of an Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay Based on a Monoclonal Antibody for the Rapid Detection of Citrinin in Wine
by Xingdong Yang, Yang Qu, Chenchen Wang, Lihua Wu and Xiaofei Hu
Foods 2025, 14(1), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14010027 (registering DOI) - 25 Dec 2024
Abstract
The ingestion of food contaminated with citrinin (CIT) poses a variety of health risks to humans and animals. The immunogens (CIT-COOH-BSA, CIT-H-BSA) and detection antigen (CIT-COOH-OVA, CIT-H-OVA) were synthesised using the active ester method (-COOH) and formaldehyde addition method (-H). A hybridoma cell [...] Read more.
The ingestion of food contaminated with citrinin (CIT) poses a variety of health risks to humans and animals. The immunogens (CIT-COOH-BSA, CIT-H-BSA) and detection antigen (CIT-COOH-OVA, CIT-H-OVA) were synthesised using the active ester method (-COOH) and formaldehyde addition method (-H). A hybridoma cell line (3G5) that secretes anti-CIT monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) was screened via CIT-H-BSA immunisation of mice, cell fusion, and ELISA screening technology. The cell line was injected intraperitoneally to prepare ascites. The reaction conditions for the indirect competitive ELISA (ic-ELISA) were optimised, and an ic-ELISA method for detecting CIT was preliminarily established. The results revealed that the IC50 of CIT from optimised ic-ELISA was 37 pg/mL, the linear detection range was 5.9~230 pg/mL, and the cross-reaction (CR) rate with other analogues was less than 0.01%. The intra-assay and interassay sample recovery rates of CIT were 84.7~92.0% and 83.6~91.6%, and the coefficients of variation (CVs) were less than 10%. The ic-ELISA of CIT established in this study was not significantly different from the HPLC results and is rapid, highly sensitive and strongly specific, providing technical support for the detection of CIT. Full article
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Figure 1
<p>(<b>A</b>) Synthesis route of the complete antigen (citrinin-COOH-BSA); (<b>B</b>) synthesis of the complete antigen (citrinin-H-BSA).</p>
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<p>Ultraviolet spectrum of citrinin-H-BSA. The solvent was PBS (pH 7.4).</p>
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<p>(<b>A</b>) Coating conditions of citrinin-H-OVA. (<b>B</b>) Reaction time of citrinin and anti-citrinin mAb. (<b>C</b>) Dilution ratio of the anti-mouse HRP-IgG. (<b>D</b>) Colour development time. “*”: the difference is significant (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05), “**”: the difference is very significant (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01).</p>
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<p>Standard curve of indirect competitive ELISA for anti-citrinin mAbs.</p>
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20 pages, 1834 KiB  
Article
The Impact of Cooking on Antioxidant and Enzyme Activities in Ruichang Yam Polyphenols
by Haoping Liu, Hua Zhang, Mengting Geng, Dingxin Shi, Dongsheng Liu, Yanxiao Jiao, Zhiqiang Lei and You Peng
Foods 2025, 14(1), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14010014 (registering DOI) - 25 Dec 2024
Abstract
In this study, the total polyphenol content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), and biological activity of yam polyphenols (including free phenolics, conjugated phenolics, and bound phenolics) were investigated during home cooking. Polyphenol components were preliminary detected in raw yam by HPLC, including 2, [...] Read more.
In this study, the total polyphenol content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), and biological activity of yam polyphenols (including free phenolics, conjugated phenolics, and bound phenolics) were investigated during home cooking. Polyphenol components were preliminary detected in raw yam by HPLC, including 2, 4-dihydroxybenzoic acid, syringic acid, vanillic acid, 4-coumaric acid, and sinapic acid. TPC and TFC of soluble conjugated polyphenols were the main phenolic compounds in Ruichang yam. Compared with uncooked yam, cooking times of 80 min and 40 min increased the TPC and TFC of multiple types of polyphenols, while cooking reduced the TPC and TFC of AHP (acid-hydrolyzed soluble conjugated polyphenols). All yam polyphenols exhibited good α-Glucosidase inhibitory activity; α-Glucosidase inhibitory activity was significantly higher for a cooking time of 120 min. Only some types of polyphenols had lower pancreatic lipase half-inhibition concentrations than orlistat when cooked. The pancreatic lipase of FPs (free polyphenols), BHPs (alkali-hydrolyzed soluble conjugated polyphenols), and ABPs (acid-hydrolyzed insoluble bound polyphenols) was the stronges when cooking for 80 min, and the pancreatic lipase inhibitory activity of AHPs and BBPs (alkali-hydrolyzed insoluble bound polyphenols) was strongest when cooking for 40 min. Pearson’s correlation coefficient analysis revealed that the TPC was positively correlated with the TFC, the IC50 value of α-Glucosidase was negatively correlated with the IC50 value of pancreatic lipase, and redox activity was positively correlated with the TPC and TFC, respectively. Full article
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<p>Phenolic compounds in Chinese Ruichang yam. (<b>A</b>) The phenolic compounds in FPs, BHPs, and BBPs; (<b>B</b>) the phenolic compounds in AHPs and ABPs. FPs: soluble-free polyphenols, BHPs: alkali-hydrolyzed soluble-conjugated polyphenols, AHPs: acid-hydrolyzed soluble-conjugated polyphenols, ABPs: acid-hydrolyzed insoluble-bound polyphenols, and BBPs: alkali-hydrolyzed, bound, conjugated polyphenols. Numbers: 1: gallic acid, 2: 3, 4-dihydroxybenzoic acid, 4: p-hydroxybenzoic acid, 8: 2, 4-dihydroxybenzoic acid, 9: vanillic acid, 12: syringic acid, 13: vanillin, 14: 4-coumaric acid, 15: ferulic acid, 16: sinapic acid, 18: naringin, 19: rosmarinic acid.</p>
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<p>(<b>a</b>–<b>f</b>) TPC: total polyphenol content, TFC: total flavonoid content, OH: hydroxyl radical activity, DPPH: radical scavenging activity, T-AOC: total antioxidant activity, and T-RC: total reducing activity. For individual bar graphs, (<b>A</b>–<b>F</b>) represent the values of the TPC, TFC, OH, DPPH, T-AOC, and T-RC of Ruichang yam during cooking time. FP: soluble-free polyphenols, BHPs: alkali-hydrolyzed soluble-conjugated polyphenols, AHPs: acid-hydrolyzed soluble-conjugated polyphenols, ABPs: acid-hydrolyzed insoluble-bound polyphenols, and BBPs: alkali-hydrolyzed, bound, conjugated polyphenols; 0: raw yam, 40: cooked for 40 min, 80: cooked for 80 min, and 120: cooked for 120 min. The data are presented as mean values ± standard deviation (SD) (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 3). According to Tukey’s multiple range test (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05), the mean values indicated with letters (a, b, c, and d) indicate significant differences (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05) between uncooked (0) samples and cooked samples for 40, 80, and 120 min.</p>
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<p>Half-inhibitory concentration (IC<sub>50</sub>, mg/mL) for α-Glucosidase (<b>A</b>) and pancreatic lipase inhibitory activity (<b>B</b>). FPs: soluble-free polyphenols; BHPs: alkali-hydrolyzed soluble-conjugated polyphenols; AHPs: acid-hydrolyzed soluble-conjugated polyphenols; ABPs: acid-hydrolyzed insoluble-bound polyphenols; BBPs: alkali-hydrolyzed, bound, conjugated polyphenols. ACA: acarbose; ORL: orlistat; 0: uncooked Chinese Ruichang yam; 40: cooked for 40 min; 80: cooked for 80 min; 120: cooked for 120 min. Different letters in the same group indicate significant differences (mean ± standard deviation, n = 3, <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05).</p>
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<p>Pearson’s correlation coefficient chart. The darker red, the stronger the positive correlation, and the darker blue, the stronger the negative correlation. TPC: total polyphenol content, TFC: total flavonoid content, OH: hydroxyl radical activity, DPPH: radical scavenging activity, T-AOC: total antioxidant activity, and T-RC: total reducing activity. AGI: half-inhibitory concentration for α-Glucosidase; PLI: half-inhibitory concentration of pancreatic lipase. “*” is the correlation between the two test indicators in the results of correlation coefficient measurement (<span class="html-italic">p</span> ≤ 0.05), and “**” is the significant correlation between the two test indicators in the results of correlation coefficient measurement (<span class="html-italic">p</span> ≤ 0.01). “***” is the very significant correlation between the two test indicators in the results of correlation coefficient measurement (<span class="html-italic">p</span> ≤ 0.001).</p>
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27 pages, 4212 KiB  
Article
Optimization of Polyphenol Extraction from Purple Corn Pericarp Using Glycerol/Lactic Acid-Based Deep Eutectic Solvent in Combination with Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction
by Ravinder Kumar, Sherry Flint-Garcia, Miriam Nancy Salazar Vidal, Lakshmikantha Channaiah, Bongkosh Vardhanabhuti, Stephan Sommer, Caixia Wan and Pavel Somavat
Antioxidants 2025, 14(1), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox14010009 (registering DOI) - 25 Dec 2024
Abstract
Purple corn pericarp, a processing waste stream, is an extremely rich source of phytochemicals. Optimal polyphenol extraction parameters were identified using response surface methodology (RSM) by combining a deep eutectic solvent (DES) and ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) method. After DES characterization, Plackett–Burman design was [...] Read more.
Purple corn pericarp, a processing waste stream, is an extremely rich source of phytochemicals. Optimal polyphenol extraction parameters were identified using response surface methodology (RSM) by combining a deep eutectic solvent (DES) and ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) method. After DES characterization, Plackett–Burman design was used to screen five explanatory variables, namely, time, Temp (temperature), water, Amp (amplitude), and S/L (solid-to-liquid ratio). The total anthocyanin concentration (TAC), total polyphenol concentration (TPC), and condensed tannin (CT) concentration were the response variables. After identifying significant factors, the Box–Behnken design was utilized to identify the optimal extraction parameters. The experimental yields under the optimized conditions of time (10 min), temperature (60 °C), water concentration (42.73%), and amplitude (40%) were 36.31 ± 1.54 g of cyanidin-3-glucoside (C3G), 103.16 ± 6.17 g of gallic acid (GA), and 237.54 ± 9.98 g of epicatechin (EE) per kg of pericarp, with a desirability index of 0.858. The relative standard error among the predicted and experimental yields was <10%, validating the robustness of the model. HPLC analysis identified seven phytochemicals, and significant antioxidant activities were observed through four distinct assays. Metabolomic profiling identified 57 unique phytochemicals. The UAE technique combined with DES can efficiently extract polyphenols from purple corn pericarp in a short time. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Valorization of Waste Through Antioxidant Extraction and Utilization)
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Figure 1
<p>FTIR spectra of constituents and DESs formulated with different water concentrations.</p>
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<p>Pareto charts showing the influence of the screened factors on responses for total anthocyanins (<b>A</b>), total phenolics (<b>B</b>), and condensed tannins (<b>C</b>).</p>
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<p>(<b>A</b>–<b>F</b>) Response surface plots for the effects of interactions between Time, Temp, Water, Amp, and the S/L ratio on TAC extraction by combining DES with UAE. The red dots indicate the design points above the predicted values and the yellow dots indicate the design points below the predicted values.</p>
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<p>HPLC chromatograms for used standards and identifying anthocyanin (<b>A</b>), phenolic (<b>B</b>) and flavonoid (<b>C</b>) compounds in the optimized extract. Note: Standard peaks identified in the anthocyanin profile belong to (1) cyanidin-3-glucoside, (2) delphinidin, (3) cyanidin chloride, (4) peonidin, (5) malvidin, and (6) pelargonidin chloride. Standard peaks identified in the phenolic profile belong to (1) gallic acid, (2) chlorogenic acid, (3) caffeic acid, (4) ferulic acid, and (5) hesperidin. Standard peaks identified in the flavonoid profile belong to (1) epicatechin, (2) morin, (3) naringin, (4) quercetin, and (5) kaempferol.</p>
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<p>UHPLC-MS chromatogram for the optimized DES extract, identifying some of the bioactive compounds.</p>
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<p>Comparisons of the intensities of bioactive compounds detected in both the aqueous and DES extracts during the metabolomic analysis.</p>
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18 pages, 9730 KiB  
Article
Influence of Sulfur Fumigation on Angelicae Dahuricae Radix: Insights from Chemical Profiles, MALDI-MSI and Anti-Inflammatory Activities
by Changshun Wang, Yongli Liu, Xiaolei Wang, Zhenhe Chen, Zhenxia Zhao, Huizhu Sun, Jian Su and Ding Zhao
Molecules 2025, 30(1), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30010022 (registering DOI) - 25 Dec 2024
Abstract
Background: Angelicae Dahuricae Radix (ADR) is used as both a traditional Chinese medicine and a food ingredient in China and East Asian countries. ADR is generally sun-dried post-harvest but is sometimes sulfur-fumigated to prevent decay and rot. Although there are some studies on [...] Read more.
Background: Angelicae Dahuricae Radix (ADR) is used as both a traditional Chinese medicine and a food ingredient in China and East Asian countries. ADR is generally sun-dried post-harvest but is sometimes sulfur-fumigated to prevent decay and rot. Although there are some studies on the effect of sulfur fumigation on ADR, they are not comprehensive. Methods: This study used HPLC fingerprinting, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI-MSI), in vitro anti-inflammatory assays, and metabolite analysis in blood based on UPLC-MS/MS to assess the impact of sulfur fumigation on the active ingredients of ADR. Results: There were significant decreases in specific coumarins and amino acids, particularly byakangelicol, oxypeucedanin, L-proline, and L-arginine, following sulfur fumigation. Among the 185 metabolites in blood, there were 30 different compounds, and oxypeucedanin was the most obvious component to decrease after sulfur fumigation. ADR showed anti-inflammatory activity regardless of sulfur fumigation. However, the effects on the production of cytokines in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells were different. Conclusions: Chemometric analysis and in vitro anti-inflammatory studies suggested that byakangelicol and oxypeucedanin could serve as potential quality markers for identifying sulfur-fumigated ADR. These findings provide a chemical basis for comprehensive safety and functional evaluations of sulfur-fumigated ADR, supporting further research in this field. Full article
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<p>The fingerprints of reference compounds (<b>A</b>), non-fumigated ADR (20 batches) (<b>B</b>), and fumigated ADR (15 batches) (<b>C</b>).</p>
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<p>Similarity analysis diagram of ADR. (<b>A</b>) Individual Value Plot of similarity of ADR. (<b>B</b>) Matrix graph of similarity and chromatographic peak number. (<b>C</b>) HCA of ADR.</p>
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<p>Content of coumarins in ADR. (<b>A</b>) Accumulation chart of 10 coumarin components in ADR; (<b>B</b>) box plot of 10 coumarins in non-sulfur-fumigated ADR; (<b>C</b>) box plot of 10 coumarins in sulfur-fumigated ADR; (<b>D</b>) effects of sulfur fumigation on coumarins in ADR.</p>
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<p>PCA and OPLS-DA analysis of ADR. (<b>A</b>) Score scatter plot of PCA; (<b>B</b>) loading scatter plot of PCA; (<b>C</b>) score scatter plot of OPLS-DA; (<b>D</b>) VIP value.</p>
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<p>Comparison between natural drying and sulfur fumigation of ADR. (<b>A</b>) Comparison of chromatographic peaks between naturally dried and sulfur-fumigated ADR; (<b>B</b>) comparison of chromatographic peak areas of six markers between sulfur-fumigated and non-sulfur-fumigated ADR.</p>
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<p>Experimental procedure of mass spectrometry imaging for ADR.</p>
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<p>Spatial distribution of typical ingredients in fumigated and non-fumigated ADR. (<b>A</b>) Optical image of ADR slices; (<b>B</b>) distribution of ingredients identified; (<b>C</b>) distribution of some unknown components.</p>
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<p>Signal strength of identified compounds in ADR before and after sulfur fumigation by MALDI-MSI.</p>
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<p>In vitro validation of byakangelicol and oxypeucedanin. (<b>A</b>) Effects of byakangelicol and oxypeucedanin on the viability of RAW264.7 cells; effect of byakangelicol and oxypeucedanin on the production of NO (<b>B</b>), TNF-α (<b>C</b>), IL-6 (<b>D</b>), IL-1β (<b>E</b>), and IL-10 (<b>F</b>) in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells. The results represent the mean ± SEM (n = 3), * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05, ** <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01, *** <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001 (vs. LPS), ### <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001 (vs. Control), ns: not significant.</p>
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<p>In vitro validation of ADR before and after sulfur fumigation. Effect of ADR before and after sulfur fumigation on the production of TNF-α (<b>A</b>), IL-6 (<b>B</b>), IL-1β (<b>C</b>), and IL-10 (<b>D</b>) in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells. The results represent the mean ± SEM (n = 3), * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05, ** <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01, *** <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001 (vs. LPS), <sup>#</sup> <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05, <sup>###</sup> <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001 (vs. Control), <sup>+</sup> <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05, <sup>+++</sup> <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001 (non-sulfur-fumigated ADR vs. sulfur-fumigated ADR).</p>
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<p>Difference in metabolites in blood in sulfur-fumigated and non-sulfur-fumigated ADR. (<b>A</b>) PCA; (<b>B</b>) OPLS-DA analysis; (<b>C</b>) heatmap cluster of ADR; (<b>D</b>) fold change bar chart; (<b>E</b>) radar chart.</p>
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37 pages, 9405 KiB  
Review
Structure Diversity and Properties of Some Bola-like Natural Products
by Valentin A. Stonik, Tatyana N. Makarieva, Larisa K. Shubina, Alla G. Guzii and Natalia V. Ivanchina
Mar. Drugs 2025, 23(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/md23010003 - 24 Dec 2024
Abstract
In their shapes, molecules of some bipolar metabolites resemble the so-called bola, a hunting weapon of the South American inhabitants, consisting of two heavy balls connected to each other by a long flexible cord. Herein, we discuss the structures and properties of these [...] Read more.
In their shapes, molecules of some bipolar metabolites resemble the so-called bola, a hunting weapon of the South American inhabitants, consisting of two heavy balls connected to each other by a long flexible cord. Herein, we discuss the structures and properties of these natural products (bola-like compounds or bolaamphiphiles), containing two polar terminal fragments and a non-polar chain (or chains) between them, from archaea, bacteria, and marine invertebrates. Additional modifications of core compounds of this class, for example, interchain and intrachain cyclization, hydroxylation, methylation, etc., expand the number of known metabolites of this type, providing their great structural variety. Isolation of such complex compounds individually is problematic, since they usually exist as mixtures of regioisomers and stereoisomers, that are very difficult to be separated. The main approaches to the study of their structures combine various methods of HPLC/MS or GC/MS, 2D-NMR experiments and organic synthesis. The recent identification of new enzymes, taking part in their biosynthesis and metabolism, made it possible to understand molecular aspects of their origination and some features of evolution during geological times. The promising properties of these metabolites, such as their ability to self-assemble and stabilize biological or artificial membranes, and biological activities, attract additional attention to them. Full article
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<p>Schematic representation of polar and bipolar natural compounds.</p>
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<p>1,2-Di-<span class="html-italic">O</span>-palmitoyl-<span class="html-italic">sn</span>-glycerol (<b>1</b>) of bacteria and eukarya, diether (<b>2</b>), and tetraether (<b>3</b>, <b>4</b>) lipids of archaea.</p>
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<p>GDGTs <b>5a</b>–<b>12a</b> and glycerol-calditol bipolar lipids <b>5b</b>–<b>12b</b> and calditol (<b>13</b>).</p>
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<p>Crenarchaeol (<b>14</b>) and crenarchaeol isomer (<b>15</b>); both structures are shown for parallel conformations.</p>
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<p>The structure of H-shaped caldarchaeol (<b>16</b>) and its chemical transformations.</p>
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<p>The structures of some other H-shaped bipolar lipids <b>24</b>–<b>27</b>.</p>
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<p>The structures of butanetriol (<b>28</b>), pentanetriol (<b>29</b>), and some hydroxylated (<b>30</b>–<b>33</b>) archaeal core lipids.</p>
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<p>Some intact lipids from <span class="html-italic">Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum</span> (<b>34</b>), from the <span class="html-italic">Sulfolobus</span> genus (<b>35</b>, <b>36</b>), and from <span class="html-italic">Pyrococcus furiosus</span> (<b>37</b>).</p>
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<p>Some branched FAs (<b>38</b>, <b>39</b>), diabolic acid (<b>40</b>), brGDGTs based on diabolic acid (<b>41a</b>–<b>f</b>), and <span class="html-italic">iso-</span>diabolic acid (<b>42</b>).</p>
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<p>Sponge natural products <b>72</b>–<b>77</b>, related to rhizochalin.</p>
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<p>Structures of oceanapiside (<b>78</b>) and calyxoside (<b>79</b>).</p>
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<p>Structures of leucettamols A (<b>93</b>) and B (<b>94</b>) and some derivatives of <b>93</b>.</p>
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<p>Oceanalins A (<b>97</b>) and B (<b>102</b>) and some derivatives of oceanalin A (<b>98–101</b>).</p>
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<p>Sagittamides A–F (<b>103</b>–<b>108</b>).</p>
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<p>Structures of α,ω-bifunctionalized bola-like metabolites <b>110</b>–<b>120</b> from some sponges.</p>
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<p>A simplified scheme of biosynthesis of brGDGTs in thermophilic bacteria, adopted from [<a href="#B93-marinedrugs-23-00003" class="html-bibr">93</a>].</p>
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<p>Determination of a keto group position in rhizochalin (<b>57</b>).</p>
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<p>A hypothetic pathway of biosynthesis of terminal fragments in rhizochalin and related compounds.</p>
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<p>Synthesis of model compounds for determination of absolute configurations in rhizochalin.</p>
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<p>Chemical transformations of calyxoside B (<b>81</b>) [<a href="#B112-marinedrugs-23-00003" class="html-bibr">112</a>].</p>
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<p>Hypothetical biosynthetic pathway to hexa-<span class="html-italic">O</span>-acetylated fragment (<b>109</b>) in sagittamides (adopted from [<a href="#B124-marinedrugs-23-00003" class="html-bibr">124</a>]).</p>
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23 pages, 2660 KiB  
Article
Improving Jelly Nutrient Profile with Bioactive Compounds from Pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) Extracts
by Lidia Gizella Szanto, Romina Alina Marc, Andruța Elena Mureşan, Crina Carmen Mureșan, Andreea Puşcaş, Floricuța Ranga, Florinela Fetea, Paula Ioana Moraru, Miuța Filip and Sevastița Muste
Forests 2025, 16(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16010011 (registering DOI) - 24 Dec 2024
Abstract
This study aimed to enhance the nutritional value of jellies by fortification with polyphenol extracts derived from Pinus sylvestris L. shoots at various maturation stages. Pinus sylvestris L., a coniferous species, is widely used in traditional medicine and functional foods due to its [...] Read more.
This study aimed to enhance the nutritional value of jellies by fortification with polyphenol extracts derived from Pinus sylvestris L. shoots at various maturation stages. Pinus sylvestris L., a coniferous species, is widely used in traditional medicine and functional foods due to its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties. Its needles, bark, and shoots are commonly used to extract bioactive compounds such as phenolic acids and flavonoids. In the current study, extracts were derived from young shoots collected directly from natural forest environments and processed using a decoction method to preserve bioactive compounds. The novel jelly formulations were prepared using pine shoots harvested at three maturity stages: stage I (4 cm), stage II (8 cm), and stage III (12 cm). All determinations were conducted both on the pure decoction extracts and the jelly samples to ensure a comprehensive analysis. High-performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-MS) allowed the identification of eight phenolic acids and six flavonoids in the samples. Significant differences were observed between the pine shoot extracts and jellies at different development stages. Notably, stage II exhibited optimal polyphenol content (312.2 mg GAE/100 g), DPPH free radical scavenging activity (94.9%), dry matter content (79.5%), and acidity (0.79% citric acid/g). A similar pattern emerged in the jelly samples (jelly2 (pine decoction stage II) > jelly1 (pine decoction stage I) > jelly3 (pine decoction stage III)). All extracts demonstrated antioxidant potential in DPPH free radical quenching assays. FTIR analysis evaluated structural changes in phenolic compounds during jelly formulation, focusing on key absorption bands at 1600 cm−1 (C=C stretching) and 3336 cm−1 (-OH stretching) using a Shimadzu IR Prestige-21 spectrophotometer. Compared to extracts, jellies showed diminished band intensities, indicating thermal degradation of phenolic compounds during processing. This aligns with observed reductions in antioxidant capacity and phenolic content, suggesting partial destabilization of these bioactive compounds. However, their integration into the jelly matrix highlights the potential for functional applications. The textural attributes of jellies were also assessed, and differences were attributed to the changes in acidity and moisture content of the pine shoots during maturation. Pine shoot extracts at specific maturation stages are valuable sources of antioxidant and polyphenol compounds and were successfully employed in functional applications belonging to the food or nutraceutical industry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Medicinal and Edible Uses of Non-timber Forest Resources)
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<p>Experimental harvesting protocol.</p>
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<p>Chemical structures of major phenolic compounds identified in <span class="html-italic">Pinus sylvestris</span> L. shoots.</p>
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<p>Correlation analysis using Pearson coefficient values examines the relationship between the physicochemical properties of both pine shoot (<b>a</b>) and pine shoot jelly (<b>b</b>) at different maturation stages.</p>
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<p>Correlation analysis using Pearson coefficient values examines the relationship between the physicochemical properties of both pine shoot (<b>a</b>) and pine shoot jelly (<b>b</b>) at different maturation stages.</p>
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<p>The heatmap with dendrogram illustrates the clustering of phenolic compounds of pine shoot extracts and jelly at different maturation stages. (<b>a</b>) Clustering of phenolic compounds in pine shoot extracts; (<b>b</b>) Clustering of phenolic compound jelly derived from pine shoots. Note: The phenolic compounds are clustered based on their similarity index across the maturation stage. The scale bar on the right represents the intensity of the compounds in pine shoot extracts and pine shoot-derived jelly. The row z score value of each compound is plotted in yellow color (positive or higher concentration) to dark blue color (negative or lower concentration).</p>
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<p>The heatmap with dendrogram illustrates the clustering of phenolic compounds of pine shoot extracts and jelly at different maturation stages. (<b>a</b>) Clustering of phenolic compounds in pine shoot extracts; (<b>b</b>) Clustering of phenolic compound jelly derived from pine shoots. Note: The phenolic compounds are clustered based on their similarity index across the maturation stage. The scale bar on the right represents the intensity of the compounds in pine shoot extracts and pine shoot-derived jelly. The row z score value of each compound is plotted in yellow color (positive or higher concentration) to dark blue color (negative or lower concentration).</p>
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<p>FTIR spectrum of pine shoot extracts (<b>a</b>) and jelly (<b>b</b>). Note: Muguri S1 = stage I, Muguri S2 = stage II, and Muguri 3 = stage III. JMS1 = jelly stage I, JMS2 = jelly stage II, and JMS3 = jelly stage III.</p>
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15 pages, 2802 KiB  
Article
Development and Characterization of Trihexyphenidyl Orodispersible Minitablets: A Challenge to Fill the Therapeutic Gap in Neuropediatrics
by Camila Olivera, Oriana Boscolo, Cecilia Dobrecky, Claudia A. Ortega, Laura S. Favier, Valeria A. Cianchino, Sabrina Flor and Silvia Lucangioli
Pharmaceutics 2025, 17(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics17010005 - 24 Dec 2024
Abstract
Background: Trihexyphenidyl (THP) has been widely used for over three decades as pediatric pharmacotherapy in patients affected by segmental and generalized dystonia. In order to achieve effective and safe pharmacotherapy for this population, new formulations are needed. Objective: The aim of this work [...] Read more.
Background: Trihexyphenidyl (THP) has been widely used for over three decades as pediatric pharmacotherapy in patients affected by segmental and generalized dystonia. In order to achieve effective and safe pharmacotherapy for this population, new formulations are needed. Objective: The aim of this work is the development of trihexyphenidyl orodispersible minitablets (ODMTs) for pediatric use. Methods: Six different excipients were tested as diluents. The properties of powder mixtures were evaluated before direct compression and pharmacotechnical tests were performed on the final formulation. The determination of the API content, uniformity of dosage, and physicochemical stability studies were analyzed by an HPLC-UV method. Results: The developed ODMTs met pharmacopeia specifications for content, hardness, friability, disintegration, and dissolution tests. The physicochemical stability study performed over 18 months shows that API content remains within 90.0–110.0% at least for this period. Conclusions: These ODMTs will allow efficient, safe, and high-quality pharmacotherapy. Full article
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<p>Trihexyphenidyl chemical structure.</p>
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<p>Color scale according to powder rheological parameter results obtained for each physical mixture (diluent + API).</p>
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<p>Mixing time optimization.</p>
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<p>(<b>A</b>) Contrast image API/excipient blend 400×; (<b>B</b>) API/excipient blend elemental mapping; (<b>C</b>) nitrogen mapping; (<b>D</b>) chloride mapping.</p>
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<p>ATR-FTIR analysis of THP and its respective co-process excipient and powder blend. (<b>A</b>) Star Lac; (<b>B</b>) Cellactose 80; (<b>C</b>) Pharmaburst; (<b>D</b>) Mannogem 1080; (<b>E</b>) Avicel C15; (<b>F</b>) Avicel RC 591.</p>
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<p>Scanning electron micrographs of (<b>A</b>) Star-Lac, (<b>B</b>) THP, (<b>C</b>) API/excipient blend 200×, and (<b>D</b>) API/excipient blend 1000×.</p>
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<p>THP ODMT dissolution profile.</p>
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16 pages, 918 KiB  
Article
Safety and Efficacy of Incorporating Actellic® 300 CS into Soil Wall Plaster for Control of Malaria Vectors in Rural Northeastern Uganda
by Tonny Jimmy Owalla, Emmanuel Okurut, Kenneth Ssaka, Gonsaga Apungia, Barbara Cemeri, Andrew Akileng, Basil Ojakol, Mark J. I. Paine, Hanafy M. Ismail and Thomas G. Egwang
Trop. Med. Infect. Dis. 2025, 10(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/tropicalmed10010004 - 24 Dec 2024
Abstract
Indoor residual spraying (IRS) and the use of insecticide-treated bednets for malaria vector control have contributed substantially to a reduction in malaria disease burden. However, these control tools have important shortcomings including being donor-dependent, expensive, and often failing because of insufficient uptake. We [...] Read more.
Indoor residual spraying (IRS) and the use of insecticide-treated bednets for malaria vector control have contributed substantially to a reduction in malaria disease burden. However, these control tools have important shortcomings including being donor-dependent, expensive, and often failing because of insufficient uptake. We assessed the safety and efficacy of a user-friendly, locally tailored malaria vector control approach dubbed “Hut Decoration for Malaria Control” (HD4MC) based on the incorporation of a WHO-approved insecticide, Actellic® 300 CS, into a customary hut decoration practice in rural Uganda where millions of the most vulnerable and malaria-prone populations live in mud-walled huts. Three hundred sixty households were randomly assigned to either the HD4MC (120 households), IRS (120 households) or control group without any wall treatment (120 households). Entomological indices were assessed using pyrethrum spray catching, CDC light traps and human landing catches. The Actellic® 300 CS toxicity on acetylcholinesterase activity among applicators of HD4MC was evaluated using the Test-mate (Model 400) erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase (AChE) test V.2, whereas toxicity in household occupants was monitored clinically. The Actellic® 300 CS level in house dust was analyzed using reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC). Entomological indices were compared between the three study arms at 1.5, 3 and 6 months post-intervention. HD4MC- and IRS-treated huts had a significantly reduced malaria vector density and feeding rate compared to control huts. There was no significant reduction in acetylcholinesterase activity at 1.5 and 24 h post exposure. Actellic® 300 CS exposure did not result in any serious adverse events among the household occupants. In conclusion, HD4MC was safe and had comparable efficacy to canonical IRS. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Global Burden of Malaria and Control Strategies)
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<p>(<b>A</b>): Post-intervention vector density. (<b>B</b>): Number of blood-fed mosquitoes. (<b>A</b>), represents the mean number of mosquitoes collected over a period of 3 days from 12 households in each of the different treatment arms at 1.5, 3 and 6 months post-intervention. (<b>B</b>), represents the mean number of blood-fed mosquitoes collected over a period of 3 days from 12 households in each of the different treatment arms at 1.5, 3 and 6 months post-intervention. The difference in the mean mosquito numbers between the 3 groups was analyzed using ANOVA, while the difference in mean mosquito density between HD4MC and IRS was analyzed using Student’s <span class="html-italic">t</span> test. HD4MC = house decoration for malaria control, IRS = indoor residual spraying.</p>
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<p>Median (interquartile range–IQR) PM levels in house dust collected from HD4MC- and IRS-treated and control households. Each data value represents a household as well as the mean of two replicate measurements of the PM level in dust obtained from a single household. The difference in the median levels of PM in the households treated with HD4MC versus IRS was analyzed using the Mann–Whitney U test.</p>
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<p>Mean levels of AChE activity in blood obtained from HD4MC applicators at different time points. (<b>A</b>), represents the mean level of A<span class="html-italic">C</span>hE activity in blood obtained from both male and female (17 persons) smearers before smearing (pre-exposure) and at 1.5 and 24 h after applying HD4MC. The difference in the mean A<span class="html-italic">C</span>hE at the 3 time points was analyzed using paired <span class="html-italic">t</span> tests. (<b>B</b>), represents the mean level of A<span class="html-italic">C</span>hE activity in blood obtained from male versus female smearers at pre-exposure and 1.5 and 24 h after smearing. The difference in mean levels between males and females was analyzed using unpaired <span class="html-italic">t</span> tests. (<b>C</b>), represents the mean level of A<span class="html-italic">C</span>hE activity in blood of only female (6 persons) smearers at baseline and at 1.5 and 24 h post-smearing. The difference in the mean A<span class="html-italic">C</span>hE activity level was analyzed using paired <span class="html-italic">t</span> tests.</p>
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21 pages, 3330 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Antioxidant Properties of Residual Hemp Leaves Following Optimized Pressurized Liquid Extraction
by Vassilis Athanasiadis, Martha Mantiniotou, Dimitrios Kalompatsios, Ioannis Makrygiannis, Aggeliki Alibade and Stavros I. Lalas
AgriEngineering 2025, 7(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriengineering7010001 - 24 Dec 2024
Abstract
Cannabis sativa, often called hemp, is a medicinal plant belonging to the Cannabaceae family and is widely recognized for its therapeutic applications. After the industrial supercritical CO2 extraction method, hemp residue biomass was recovered, and a significant quantity of bioactive compounds [...] Read more.
Cannabis sativa, often called hemp, is a medicinal plant belonging to the Cannabaceae family and is widely recognized for its therapeutic applications. After the industrial supercritical CO2 extraction method, hemp residue biomass was recovered, and a significant quantity of bioactive compounds was identified. Therefore, it is of paramount importance to study whether they can be further exploited using green techniques. In the present work, hemp leaf residues were treated using two extraction techniques: one conventional stirring extraction (STE) and one green pressurized liquid extraction (PLE). The latter technique is a promising and swift method for the efficient extraction of valuable molecules from natural sources. The two techniques were optimized through Response Surface Methodology, and the optimized parameters were the appropriate solvent, temperature, and extraction duration. The aim was to maximize the yield of bioactive compounds (polyphenols, flavonoids, and ascorbic acid) from hemp leaf residue and evaluate their antioxidant activity using the most appropriate technique. The results showed that after three 5 min PLE cycles, the recovered individual polyphenols were comparable (p > 0.05) to a 45 min STE (19.34 and 20.84 mg/g, respectively), as well as in antioxidant capacity assays and other bioactive compounds. These findings emphasize the efficacy of the rapid PLE approach as an effective extraction technique to enhance the value of hemp leaf residues while maximizing the concentration of high-added value molecules. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Pre and Post-Harvest Engineering in Agriculture)
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Graphical abstract

Graphical abstract
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<p>The optimal extraction via the pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) technique, depicted in 3D graphs, demonstrates the effects of process variables on the responses (TPC and FRAP). For TPC, plot (<b>A</b>) shows the covariation of <span class="html-italic">X</span><sub>1</sub> (ethanol concentration; <span class="html-italic">C</span>, % <span class="html-italic">v</span>/<span class="html-italic">v</span>) and <span class="html-italic">X</span><sub>2</sub> (extraction temperature; <span class="html-italic">T</span>, °C), and for FRAP, plot (<b>B</b>) shows the covariation of <span class="html-italic">X</span><sub>1</sub> and <span class="html-italic">X</span><sub>2</sub>.</p>
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<p>The optimal extraction via the stirring extraction (STE) technique, depicted in 3D graphs, demonstrates process variables’ effects on the responses (TPC and FRAP). For TPC, plot (<b>A</b>) shows covariation of <span class="html-italic">X</span><sub>1</sub> (ethanol concentration; <span class="html-italic">C</span>, % <span class="html-italic">v</span>/<span class="html-italic">v</span>) and <span class="html-italic">X</span><sub>2</sub> (extraction temperature; <span class="html-italic">T</span>, °C); plot (<b>B</b>) shows covariation of <span class="html-italic">X</span><sub>1</sub> and <span class="html-italic">X</span><sub>3</sub> (extraction time; <span class="html-italic">t</span>, min); and plot (<b>C</b>) shows covariation of <span class="html-italic">X</span><sub>2</sub> and <span class="html-italic">X</span><sub>3</sub>. For FRAP, plot (<b>D</b>) shows covariation of <span class="html-italic">X</span><sub>1</sub> and <span class="html-italic">X</span><sub>2</sub>; plot (<b>E</b>) shows covariation of <span class="html-italic">X</span><sub>1</sub> and <span class="html-italic">X</span><sub>3</sub>; and plot (<b>F</b>) shows covariation of <span class="html-italic">X</span><sub>2</sub> and <span class="html-italic">X</span><sub>3</sub>.</p>
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<p>Pareto plots represent the significance of each parameter estimate for pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) and stirring extraction (STE) techniques on TPC (<b>A</b>,<b>B</b>) and FRAP assays (<b>C</b>,<b>D</b>), respectively. A pink asterisk is included in the plot to denote the significance level (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05). Blue bars indicate positive values, while red bars represent negative values.</p>
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<p>Plots (<b>A</b>,<b>B</b>) illustrate the optimization of PLE and STE techniques from <span class="html-italic">C. sativa</span> by-product extracts, respectively, utilizing a partial least squares (PLS) prediction profiler and a desirability function with extrapolation control. Plots (<b>C</b>,<b>D</b>) exhibit the Variable Importance Plot (VIP) graph, indicating the VIP values for each predictor variable in PLE and STE techniques, respectively. A red dashed line marks the 0.8 significance level for each variable in plots (<b>C</b>,<b>D</b>).</p>
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<p>The measured <span class="html-italic">L</span>*, <span class="html-italic">a</span>*, and <span class="html-italic">b</span>* values were used to fill the shape columns with the corresponding color of the extract, represented by the appropriate HEX code. The study contrasted the pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) technique involving three cycles (indicated by an orange rectangle) with the stirring extraction (STE) technique. Statistical significance (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05) is denoted by different lowercase letters (e.g., a–e) within each color coordinate.</p>
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<p>Representative chromatograph of phenolic compounds from PLE and STE optimal extracts: plot (<b>A</b>) (non-flavonoids) at 280 nm and plot (<b>B</b>) (flavonoids) at 320 nm. 1: catechol; 2: pyrogallol; 3: phenol; 4: pyrocatechuic acid; 5: caffeic acid; 6: homovanilinic acid; 7: syringic acid; 8: <span class="html-italic">p</span>-coumaric acid; 9: ferulic acid; 10: cyanidin-3-glucoside chloride; 11: rutin; 12: luteolin-7-glucoside; 13: apigenin-7-<span class="html-italic">O</span>-glucoside; 14: fisetin; 15: quercetin. Compounds 1 and 10 are not visible at these wavelengths but are clearly observed at 260 and 520 nm, respectively.</p>
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<p>A consensus map comparing pressurized liquid extraction (PLE), which involves three cycles, and stirring extraction (STE) techniques for the measured parameters is presented in blocks.</p>
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<p>Block Partial Contributions plot between measured parameters in blocks.</p>
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<p>Multivariate correlation analysis of measured variables.</p>
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19 pages, 4004 KiB  
Article
Differences in the Quality Components of Wuyi Rock Tea and Huizhou Rock Tea
by Zhaobao Wu, Weiwen Liao, Hongbo Zhao, Zihao Qiu, Peng Zheng, Yuxuan Liu, Xinyuan Lin, Jiyuan Yao, Ansheng Li, Xindong Tan, Binmei Sun, Hui Meng and Shaoqun Liu
Foods 2025, 14(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14010004 - 24 Dec 2024
Abstract
Different origins and qualities can lead to differences in the taste and aroma of tea; however, the impacts of origin and quality on the taste and aroma characteristics of Wuyi rock tea and Huizhou rock tea have rarely been studied. In this study, [...] Read more.
Different origins and qualities can lead to differences in the taste and aroma of tea; however, the impacts of origin and quality on the taste and aroma characteristics of Wuyi rock tea and Huizhou rock tea have rarely been studied. In this study, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS), and sensory evaluation methods were used to compare the quality components of Wuyi rock tea and Huizhou rock tea. The sensory evaluation showed that they each have their own characteristics, but the overall acceptability of Wuyi rock tea is ahead of Huizhou rock tea (p < 0.01). Biochemical experiments showed that HT was the highest in water leachables, about 43.12%; WT was the highest in tea polyphenols, about 14.91%; WR was the highest in free amino acids, about 3.38%; and the six rock teas had different health benefits. High-performance liquid chromatography showed that the theanine contents of WS and WR were 0.183% and 0.103%, respectively, which were much higher than those of other varieties. The OPLS-DA model predicted the factors that caused their different tastes, in order of contribution: CG > ECG > caffeine > EGCG > theanine. Ten volatile substances with OAV ≥ 1 and VIP > 1 were also found, indicating that they contributed greatly to the aroma characteristics, especially hexanoic acid, hexyl ester, and benzyl nitrile. The results of the correlation analysis showed that theanine was significantly correlated with taste (p < 0.05), and hexanoic acid, hexyl ester, and benzyl nitrile were significantly correlated with smell (p < 0.05). Substances such as theanine, hexanoic acid, hexyl ester, and benzyl nitrile give them their unique characteristics. Analysis of the differences in the quality components of the six rock teas can provide reference value for the cultivation and processing of rock teas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Food Quality and Safety)
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<p>Production process flow chart for 6 kinds of rock tea.</p>
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<p>Basic biochemical experiments determined the content of six indicators of six types of rock tea, and the content is expressed as the average value (%) ± standard deviation (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 3). Significant differences are marked according to one-way ANOVA and Tukey’s post hoc test (* <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05; ** <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01). (<b>A-1</b>) Water content of 6 kinds of rock tea. (<b>A-2</b>) Water leachables content of 6 kinds of rock tea. (<b>A-3</b>) Soluble sugars content of 6 kinds of rock tea. (<b>A-4</b>) Free amino acids content of 6 kinds of rock tea. (<b>A-5</b>) Tea polyphenols content of 6 kinds of rock tea. (<b>A-6</b>) Phenol-to-amino acid ratio of 6 kinds of rock tea.</p>
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<p>The contents of caffeine, theanine, catechins, and their monomers in the six rock teas were determined using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and the content is expressed as the mean value (%) ± standard deviation (n = 3). Significant differences are marked according to one-way ANOVA and Tukey’s post hoc test (* <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05; ** <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01). (<b>A-1</b>) Caffeine content of 6 kinds of rock tea. (<b>A-2</b>) Theanine content of 6 kinds of rock tea. (<b>A-3</b>) Catechins content of 6 kinds of rock tea. (<b>A-4</b>) GA content of 6 kinds of rock tea. (<b>A-5</b>) GC content of 6 kinds of rock tea. (<b>A-6</b>) EGC content of 6 kinds of rock tea. (<b>A-7</b>) C content of 6 kinds of rock tea. (<b>A-8</b>) EC content of 6 kinds of rock tea. (<b>A-9</b>) EGCG content of 6 kinds of rock tea. (<b>A-10</b>) GCG content of 6 kinds of rock tea. (<b>A-11</b>) ECG content of 6 kinds of rock tea. (<b>A-12</b>) CG content of 6 kinds of rock tea.</p>
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<p>(<b>A</b>) OPLS-DA score plot. (<b>B</b>) Cross-validation model: 200-fold cross-validation model results: R<sup>2</sup> = 0.26, Q<sup>2</sup> = −1.04, indicating that the OPLS-DA discriminant model is not overfitted and the model is relatively reliable. (<b>C</b>) VIP score plot; yellow bars represent non-volatile compounds with VIP &gt; 1; purple bars represent non-volatile compounds with VIP &lt; 1.</p>
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<p>(<b>A</b>) Volatile substance stacking chart of 6 rock teas. (<b>B</b>) Volatile substance Venn diagram of 6 rock teas. (<b>C</b>) Heat map of 23 common volatile substances.</p>
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<p>(<b>A</b>) OPLS-DA score plot. (<b>B</b>) Cross-validation model: 200-fold cross-validation model results: R<sup>2</sup> = 0.398, Q<sup>2</sup> = −0.935, indicating that the OPLS-DA discriminant model is not overfitted and the model is relatively reliable. (<b>C</b>) VIP score plot, with yellow bars representing volatile compounds with VIP &gt; 1 and purple bars representing volatile compounds with VIP &lt; 1. (<b>D</b>) Heat map of the 10 important volatile compounds.</p>
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<p>(<b>A</b>) Radar chart of the sensory evaluation results of 6 rock teas; (<b>B</b>) overall acceptability chart of the sensory evaluation of 6 rock teas (** <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01); (<b>C</b>) tea infusion chart of 6 rock teas.</p>
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<p>(<b>A</b>) Correlation analysis chart of the taste of the six rock teas and key non-volatile substances. (<b>B</b>) Correlation analysis chart of the odor of the six rock teas and key volatile substances (* <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05; ** <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01).</p>
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26 pages, 4557 KiB  
Article
Ethanolic Extract of Averrhoa carambola Leaf Has an Anticancer Activity on Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Cells: An In Vitro Study
by Oscar F. Beas-Guzmán, Ariana Cabrera-Licona, Gustavo A. Hernández-Fuentes, Silvia G. Ceballos-Magaña, José Guzmán-Esquivel, Luis De-León-Zaragoza, Mario Ramírez-Flores, Janet Diaz-Martinez, Idalia Garza-Veloz, Margarita L. Martínez-Fierro, Iram P. Rodríguez-Sanchez, Gabriel Ceja-Espíritu, Carmen Meza-Robles, Víctor H. Cervantes-Kardasch and Iván Delgado-Enciso
Pharmaceutics 2025, 17(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics17010002 - 24 Dec 2024
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Averrhoa carambola, or star fruit, is a shrub known for its medicinal properties, especially due to bioactive metabolites identified in its roots and fruit with anti-cancer activity. However, the biological effects of its leaves remain unexplored. This study aimed to [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Averrhoa carambola, or star fruit, is a shrub known for its medicinal properties, especially due to bioactive metabolites identified in its roots and fruit with anti-cancer activity. However, the biological effects of its leaves remain unexplored. This study aimed to assess the effects of ethanolic extract from A. carambola leaves on triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), an aggressive subtype lacking specific therapy. Methods: Phytochemical analysis and HPLC profile and additional cell line evaluation employing MDA-MB-231 were carried out. Results: Phytochemical screening revealed that the ethanolic extract was rich in flavonoids, saponins, and steroids, demonstrating an antioxidant capacity of 45%. 1H NMR analysis indicated the presence of flavonoids, terpenes, and glycoside-like compounds. Cell viability assays showed a concentration-dependent decrease in viability, with an IC50 value of 20.89 μg/mL at 48 h. Clonogenic assays indicated significant inhibition of replicative immortality, with only 2.63% survival at 15 μg/mL. Migration, assessed through a wound healing assay, was reduced to 3.06% at 100 μg/mL, with only 16.23% of cells remaining attached. An additive effect was observed when combining lower concentrations of the extract with doxorubicin, indicating potential synergy. Conclusions: These results suggest that the ethanolic extract of A. carambola leaves contains metabolites with anti-cancer activity against TNBC cells, supporting further research into their bioactive compounds and therapeutic potential. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmaceutical Applications of Plant Extracts, 2nd Edition)
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<p>Chromatograms obtained at 290 nm from HPLC analysis. (<b>A</b>) Chromatogram of standards: gallic acid (GA, Rt 2.385 min), cinnamic acid (CA, Rt 30.795 min), anthrone (ANT, Rt 20.000 min), quercetin (Q, Rt 17.955 min), and 4-methylumbelliferone (4-ML, Rt 10.908 min). (<b>B</b>) Chromatogram of the ethanolic extract of <span class="html-italic">A. carambola</span> (500 ppm). (<b>C</b>) Chromatogram of the hydrolysate of the leaves of <span class="html-italic">A. carambola</span> (500 ppm). S: signal.</p>
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<p>Viability experiments employing ethanolic extract of <span class="html-italic">A. carambola</span> on MDA-MB-231 cells. (<b>A</b>) No changes in viability were observed in cervical cancer cell line TC-1 exposed to A. carambola extract in increasing concentrations. (<b>B</b>) A concentration-dependent effect was observed on MDA-MB-231 cell line exposed to the extract. (<b>C</b>) The ethanolic extract of <span class="html-italic">A. carambola</span> leaves had an experimental IC<sub>50</sub> of 20.83 μg/mL in triple-negative breast cancer cell line. (<b>D</b>) Morphological changes and detached cells were observed from the concentration of 25 μg/mL of ethanolic extract. Magnification 10×. The <span class="html-italic">p</span>-values correspond to significant differences compared to the control, DMEM-F12 medium with 0.1% DMSO, * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05.</p>
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<p>Ethanolic extract of <span class="html-italic">A. carambola</span> leaves decreases replicative immortality of MDA-MB-231 cells. (<b>A</b>) Photographs depict the number of colonies formed after the exposition of each treatment. It is observed that a concentration-dependent effect completely inhibits cell survival. (<b>B</b>) The graph shows the percentage of survival treatment. The <span class="html-italic">p</span>-values correspond to significant differences compared to the control, only DMEM medium, * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05.</p>
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<p>Ethanolic extract of <span class="html-italic">A. carambola</span> leaves interferes with MDA-MB-231 cell migration. (<b>A</b>) Images captured at 48 h of the wound area made in MDA-MB-231 cell monolayers. Magnification 4×. (<b>B</b>) The graph shows the changes in the open area; a concentration-dependent inhibitory effect can be observed at 48 h that was superior to the doxorubicin effect. Comparison to 48 h control, * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05.</p>
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<p>The ethanolic extract of <span class="html-italic">A. carambola</span> leaves affects the cell adhesion of MDA-MB-231 cells. (<b>A</b>) The micrographs show the adhesive capacity of cells recovered after exposure to <span class="html-italic">A. carambola</span> extract and reseeded for 24 h. The adhesive capacity decreases as the concentration of the extract increases. Magnification 10×. (<b>B</b>) The graphs show the percentage of cells adhered to the monolayer after being treated with the extract for 48, showing a concentration-dependent decrease in adhesion. (<b>C</b>) The graph shows the percentage of cell death after 48 h of treatment. (<b>D</b>) The graph shows the percentage of adhesion of detached cells after treatment that were recovered and reseeded. The <span class="html-italic">p</span>-values correspond to significant changes compared to the control, * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05.</p>
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<p>The combination of a low dose of doxorubicin and intermediate doses of <span class="html-italic">A. carambola</span> extract reduces the cell viability of MDA-MB-231 cells. The graph shows the reduction in cell viability induced by the different combinations after 48 h of treatment. An additive effect was observed between the 1/5 IC<sub>50</sub> dose of doxorubicin (DOX) and the three tested concentrations of the extract. <sup>a</sup> 0.4 μM DOX + 15 μg/mL extract vs. 15 μg/mL of the extract, <sup>b</sup> 0.4 μM DOX + 25 μg/mL vs. 25 μg/mL, <sup>c</sup> 0.4 μM DOX + 50 μg/mL vs. 50 μg/mL, <sup>d</sup> 2 μM DOX + 15 μg/mL vs. 15 μg/mL, <sup>e</sup> 2 μM DOX + 25 μg/mL vs. 25 μg/mL, <sup>f</sup> 2 μM DOX + 50 μg/mL vs. 50 μg/Ml, <sup>a’</sup> 0.4 μM DOX + 15 μg/mL vs. 0.4 μM DOX, <sup>b’</sup> 0.4 μM DOX + 25 μg/mL vs. 0.4 μM DOX <sup>c’</sup> 0.4 μM DOX + 50 μg/mL vs. 0.4 μM DOX, <sup>d’</sup> 2 μM DOX + 15 μg/mL vs. 2 μM DOX, <sup>e’</sup> 2 μM DOX + 25 μg/mL vs. 2 μM DOX, <sup>f’</sup> 2 μM DOX + 50 μg/mL vs. 2 μM DOX, * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05.</p>
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18 pages, 1731 KiB  
Article
The Phytochemical Composition and Antioxidant Activity of Matricaria recutita Blossoms and Zingiber officinale Rhizome Ethanol Extracts
by Anca Elena But, Raluca Maria Pop, Georg Friedrich Binsfeld, Floricuța Ranga, Meda Sandra Orăsan, Andra Diana Cecan, Iulia Ioana Morar, Elisabeta Ioana Chera, Teodora Irina Bonci, Lia Oxana Usatiuc, Mădălina Țicolea, Florinela Adriana Cătoi, Alina Elena Pârvu and Mircea Constantin Dinu Ghergie
Nutrients 2025, 17(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17010005 - 24 Dec 2024
Abstract
Background: Inflammation-induced oxidative stress is a pathophysiological mechanism of inflammatory diseases. Treatments targeting oxidative stress can reduce inflammatory tissue damage. Objectives: This study aimed to conduct phytochemical analysis and evaluate the antioxidant effects of the hydroalcoholic extract of Matricaria recutita blossoms (M. [...] Read more.
Background: Inflammation-induced oxidative stress is a pathophysiological mechanism of inflammatory diseases. Treatments targeting oxidative stress can reduce inflammatory tissue damage. Objectives: This study aimed to conduct phytochemical analysis and evaluate the antioxidant effects of the hydroalcoholic extract of Matricaria recutita blossoms (M. recutita) and Zingiber officinale rhizomes (Z. officinale). Materials and Methods: The phytochemical analysis was carried out by measuring the total polyphenol content, total flavonoid content, and polyphenolic compounds’ HPLC-ESI MS. The antioxidant activity was evaluated in vitro through H2O2 DPPH, FRAP, and NO scavenging assays. An in vivo experiment was performed on rats with turpentine oil-induced acute inflammation. Treatments were administrated orally for 10 days, with three dilutions of each extract (100%, 50%, 25%), and compared to the CONTROL, inflammation, Diclofenac, and Trolox groups. In vivo, the antioxidant activity was evaluated by measuring the total antioxidant capacity (TAC), total oxidative status (TOS), oxidative stress index (OSI), malondialdehyde (MDA), nitric oxide (NO), advanced oxidation protein products (AOPP), and total thiols (SH). Results: The phytochemical analysis found a high content of phenolic compounds in both extracts, and the in vitro antioxidant activity was significant. In vivo, M. recutita and Z. officinale extracts proved to be effective in increasing TAC and lowering oxidative stress markers, respectively, the TOS, OSI, MDA, and NO levels. The effects were dose-dependent, with the lower concentrations being more efficient antioxidants. Matricaria recutita and Z. officinale extract effects were as good as those of trolox and diclofenac. Conclusions: Treatment with M. recutita and Z. officinale alleviated inflammation-induced oxidative stress. These findings suggest that M. recutita and Z. officinale extracts could be a promising adjuvant antioxidant therapy in inflammatory diseases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Effect of Bioactive Compounds in Anti-inflammation)
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<p>HPLC chromatogram of phenolic compounds from the <span class="html-italic">M.recutita</span> extract registered at 280 and 340 nm. The peak identification is provided in <a href="#nutrients-17-00005-t002" class="html-table">Table 2</a>.</p>
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<p>HPLC chromatogram of phenolic compounds from the <span class="html-italic">Z. officinale</span> rhizome extract registered at 280 and 340 nm. The peak identification is provided in <a href="#nutrients-17-00005-t003" class="html-table">Table 3</a>.</p>
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<p>Oxidative stress markers of PCA analysis in groups treated with <span class="html-italic">Z. officinale</span> and <span class="html-italic">M. recutita</span> extracts. (<b>a</b>) ZO100%—<span class="html-italic">Z. officinale</span> extract 100% treatment; (<b>b</b>) ZO50%—<span class="html-italic">Z. officinale</span> extract 50% treatment; (<b>c</b>) ZO25%—<span class="html-italic">Z. officinale</span> extract 25% treatment; (<b>d</b>) MR100%—<span class="html-italic">M. recutita</span> extract 100% treatment; (<b>e</b>) MR50%—<span class="html-italic">M. recutita</span> extract 50% treatment; (<b>f</b>) MR25%—<span class="html-italic">M. recutita</span> extract 25% treatment.</p>
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<p>Oxidative stress markers of PCA analysis in groups treated with <span class="html-italic">Z. officinale</span> and <span class="html-italic">M. recutita</span> extracts. (<b>a</b>) ZO100%—<span class="html-italic">Z. officinale</span> extract 100% treatment; (<b>b</b>) ZO50%—<span class="html-italic">Z. officinale</span> extract 50% treatment; (<b>c</b>) ZO25%—<span class="html-italic">Z. officinale</span> extract 25% treatment; (<b>d</b>) MR100%—<span class="html-italic">M. recutita</span> extract 100% treatment; (<b>e</b>) MR50%—<span class="html-italic">M. recutita</span> extract 50% treatment; (<b>f</b>) MR25%—<span class="html-italic">M. recutita</span> extract 25% treatment.</p>
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12 pages, 1170 KiB  
Article
Discovery of Isograndidentatin D, a Novel Phenolic Glycoside, and Anti-Helicobacter pylori Phenolics from Salix koreensis Twigs
by Yoon Seo Jang, Dong-Min Kang, Yoon-Joo Ko, Moon-Jin Ra, Sang-Mi Jung, Mi-Jeong Ahn, Seulah Lee and Ki Hyun Kim
Plants 2024, 13(24), 3603; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants13243603 - 23 Dec 2024
Abstract
Salix koreensis Anderss (Salicaceae), commonly referred to as Korean willow, is native to East Asia, particularly Korea and China, and it has been used in traditional Korean folk medicine for its potent anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antioxidant properties. In our ongoing research efforts to [...] Read more.
Salix koreensis Anderss (Salicaceae), commonly referred to as Korean willow, is native to East Asia, particularly Korea and China, and it has been used in traditional Korean folk medicine for its potent anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antioxidant properties. In our ongoing research efforts to discover biologically new natural products, phytochemical analysis on an ethanolic extract of S. koreensis twigs yielded the isolation and identification of ten phenolic compounds (110), including a newly discovered phenolic glycoside (1) named isograndidentatin D, isolated via HPLC purification. The structure of compound 1 was determined through extensive 1D and 2D NMR spectral data analysis and high-resolution electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (HR-ESIMS). Its absolute configuration was established using DP4+ probability analysis combined with gauge-including atomic orbital NMR chemical shift calculations and chemical reaction methods. The other known compounds were identified as isograndidentatin B (2), trichocarposide (3), glanduloidin C (4), tremuloidin (5), 3-O-acetylsalicin (6), 2-O-acetylsalicin (7), salicin (8), salireposide (9), and coumaric acid (10), confirmed by comparing their NMR spectra with previously reported data and further verified through liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS) analysis. The isolated compounds 110 were tested for their anti-Helicobacter pylori activities. Among these, compounds 4 and 5 demonstrated moderate anti-H. pylori activity at a concentration of 100 μM. Specifically, compound 5 showed an inhibitory activity of 35.9 ± 5.4%, making it slightly more potent than compound 4, with 34.0 ± 1.0% inhibition. These results were comparable to that of quercetin, a known anti-H. pylori agent used as a positive control in this study, which showed 38.4 ± 2.3% inhibition. The remaining compounds exhibited very weak inhibitory effects. This study highlights the potential of S. koreensis twigs as a valuable natural source of bioactive compounds for therapeutic applications against H. pylori. Full article
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<p>Chemical structures of compounds <b>1</b>–<b>10</b>.</p>
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<p>Key <sup>1</sup>H-<sup>1</sup>H COSY (<span class="html-fig-inline" id="plants-13-03603-i001"><img alt="Plants 13 03603 i001" src="/plants/plants-13-03603/article_deploy/html/images/plants-13-03603-i001.png"/></span>) and HMBC (<span class="html-fig-inline" id="plants-13-03603-i002"><img alt="Plants 13 03603 i002" src="/plants/plants-13-03603/article_deploy/html/images/plants-13-03603-i002.png"/></span>) correlations for compound <b>1</b>.</p>
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<p>DP4+ analysis and probability scores for compound <b>1</b> with <b>1a</b>/<b>1b</b>.</p>
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18 pages, 3715 KiB  
Article
From Spent Black and Green Tea to Potential Health Boosters: Optimization of Polyphenol Extraction and Assessment of Their Antioxidant and Antibacterial Activities
by Ahlam Harfoush, Aseel Swaidan, Salma Khazaal, Elie Salem Sokhn, Nabil Grimi, Espérance Debs, Nicolas Louka and Nada El Darra
Antioxidants 2024, 13(12), 1588; https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox13121588 - 23 Dec 2024
Abstract
Tea, one of the most popular beverages worldwide, generates a substantial amount of spent leaves, often directly discarded although they may still contain valuable compounds. This study aims to optimize the extraction of polyphenols from spent black tea (SBT) and spent green tea [...] Read more.
Tea, one of the most popular beverages worldwide, generates a substantial amount of spent leaves, often directly discarded although they may still contain valuable compounds. This study aims to optimize the extraction of polyphenols from spent black tea (SBT) and spent green tea (SGT) leaves while also exploring their antioxidant and antibacterial properties. Response surface methodology was utilized to determine the optimal experimental conditions for extracting polyphenols from SBT and SGT. The total phenolic content (TPC) was quantified using the Folin–Ciocalteu method, while antioxidant activity was evaluated through the DPPH assay. Antibacterial activity was assessed using the disk diffusion method. Additionally, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was employed to analyze the phytochemical profiles of the SBT and SGT extracts. Optimal extraction for SBT achieved 404 mg GAE/g DM TPC and 51.5% DPPH inhibition at 93.64 °C, 79.9 min, and 59.4% ethanol–water. For SGT, conditions of 93.63 °C, 81.7 min, and 53.2% ethanol–water yielded 452 mg GAE/g DM TPC and 78.3% DPPH inhibition. Both tea extracts exhibited antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria, with SGT showing greater efficacy against S. aureus and slightly better inhibition of B. subtilis compared to SBT. No activity was observed against the Gram-negative bacteria E. coli and S. typhimurium. HPLC analysis revealed hydroxybenzoic acid as the main phenolic compound in SBT (360.7 mg/L), while rutin was predominant in SGT (42.73 mg/L). The optimized phenolic-rich extracts of SBT and SGT demonstrated promising antioxidant and antibacterial potential, making them strong candidates for use as natural health boosters in food products. Full article
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<p>Tea samples: (<b>a</b>) spent black tea (SBT); (<b>b</b>) spent green tea (SGT).</p>
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<p>Standardized Pareto charts with inserts for the effect of the studied parameters on (<b>a</b>) TPC and (<b>c</b>) DPPH inhibition percentage, and estimated response surface for (<b>b</b>) TPC and (<b>d</b>) DPPH inhibition percentage for SBT extract. (+) indicates a positive effect, and (−) indicates a negative effect.</p>
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<p>Standardized Pareto charts with inserts for the effect of the studied parameters on (<b>a</b>) TPC and (<b>c</b>) DPPH inhibition percentage, and estimated response surface for (<b>b</b>) TPC and (<b>d</b>) DPPH inhibition percentage for SGT extract. (+) indicates a positive effect, and (−) indicates a negative effect.</p>
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<p>Contour plots of the estimated response surface for TPC (<b>a</b>,<b>c</b>) and DPPH (<b>b</b>,<b>d</b>) as a function of time and the ethanol/water ratio for SBT and SGT extracts, respectively.</p>
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<p>Overlay plots generated from contours of estimated response surface for TPC and DPPH for (<b>a</b>) SBT and (<b>b</b>) SGT extracts.</p>
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21 pages, 5599 KiB  
Article
Effects of Cynara scolymus L. Bract Extract on Lipid Metabolism Disorders Through Modulation of HMG-CoA Reductase, Apo A-1, PCSK-9, p-AMPK, SREBP-2, and CYP2E1 Expression
by Imane Mokhtari, Abdelaaty A. Shahat, Omar M. Noman, Dragan Milenkovic, Souliman Amrani and Hicham Harnafi
Metabolites 2024, 14(12), 728; https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo14120728 - 23 Dec 2024
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Hyperlipidemia is a major contributor to metabolic complications and tissue damage, leading to conditions such as liver steatosis, atherosclerosis, and obesity. This study aimed to investigate the effects of aqueous artichoke bract extract (AE) on lipid metabolism, liver antioxidative defense, and liver [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Hyperlipidemia is a major contributor to metabolic complications and tissue damage, leading to conditions such as liver steatosis, atherosclerosis, and obesity. This study aimed to investigate the effects of aqueous artichoke bract extract (AE) on lipid metabolism, liver antioxidative defense, and liver steatosis in mice fed a high-fat, high-sucrose diet while elucidating the underlying mechanisms. Methods: An 8-week study used hyperlipidemic mice treated with AE at daily doses of 100 and 200 mg/kg bw, compared to fenofibrate. Plasma, liver, fecal, and biliary lipids, as well as blood glucose, were analyzed enzymatically. The liver antioxidative defense was assessed by measuring reduced glutathione, malondialdehyde (MDA), and antioxidant enzyme activities, while liver steatosis was evaluated through transaminase and alkaline phosphatase activities and histological monitoring of lipid droplets. Polyphenol profiling and quantification were performed using HPLC–DAD, and potential mechanisms were predicted by molecular docking and confirmed in HepG2 cells. Results: At 200 mg/kg, AE significantly improved plasma lipid profiles by reducing total cholesterol, triglycerides, and LDL–cholesterol while increasing HDL–cholesterol. It facilitated cholesterol reduction in the liver and its excretion, indicating activation of reverse cholesterol transport, which led to reduced body weight and liver steatosis. AE lowered MDA levels and enhanced antioxidant enzyme activities. AE was found to be safe (LD50 > 5000 mg/kg) and modulated gene expression in HepG2 cells. Conclusions: Based on our results, the artichoke bract extract could be considered a natural resource of bioactive compounds to treat hyperlipidemia and related cardiometabolic diseases. Full article
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<p>Effect of AE on body weight (<b>A</b>), food intake (<b>B</b>), and organ relative weight in mice (<b>C</b>). AE: aqueous artichoke bract extract; NG: normal group; HG: hyperlipidemic group; AETG: AE-treated groups; FG: fenofibrate group. <sup>a</sup> <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001 vs. NG. * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01 and ** <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001 vs. HG.</p>
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<p>Effect of AE on body weight (<b>A</b>), food intake (<b>B</b>), and organ relative weight in mice (<b>C</b>). AE: aqueous artichoke bract extract; NG: normal group; HG: hyperlipidemic group; AETG: AE-treated groups; FG: fenofibrate group. <sup>a</sup> <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001 vs. NG. * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01 and ** <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001 vs. HG.</p>
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<p>Effect of AE on plasma total cholesterol and triglyceride levels in hyperlipidemic mice. AE: aqueous artichoke bract extract; TC: total cholesterol; TG: triglycerides; NG: normal group; HG: hyperlipidemic group; AETG: AE-treated groups; FG: fenofibrate group. <sup>a</sup> <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001 vs. NG. * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01 and ** <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001 vs. HG.</p>
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<p>Effect of AE on plasma LDL–C and HDL–C levels in mice. AE: aqueous artichoke bract extract; HDL–C: high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol; LDL–C: low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol; NG: normal group; HG: hyperlipidemic group; AETG: AE-treated groups; FG: fenofibrate group. <sup>a</sup> <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 and <sup>b</sup> <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001 vs. NG. * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05, <b>**</b> <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01, and *** <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001 vs. HG.</p>
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<p>Effect of AE on lipid levels in the liver and adipose tissue of mice. AE: aqueous artichoke bract extract; TC: total cholesterol; TG: triglycerides; NG: normal group; HG: hyperlipidemic group; AETG: AE-treated groups; FG: fenofibrate group. <sup>a</sup> <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01 and <sup>b</sup> <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001 vs. NG. * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 and ** <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001 vs. HG.</p>
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<p>Effect of AE on biliary cholesterol. AE: aqueous artichoke bract extract; NG: normal group; HG: hyperlipidemic group; AETG: AE-treated groups; FG: fenofibrate group. <sup>a</sup> <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 vs. NG. * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01 vs. HG.</p>
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<p>Effect of AE on fecal lipid excretion in mice. AE: aqueous artichoke bract extract; TC: total cholesterol; TG: triglycerides; NG: normal group; HG: hyperlipidemic group; AETG: AE-treated groups; FG: fenofibrate group. <sup>a</sup> <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01 and <sup>b</sup> <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001 vs. NG. * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001 vs. HG.</p>
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<p>Effect of AE on glucose levels in mice. AE: aqueous artichoke bract extract; NG: normal group; HG: hyperlipidemic group; AETG: AE-treated groups. FG: fenofibrate group. <sup>a</sup> <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01 and <sup>b</sup> <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001 vs. NG. * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01 and ** <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001 vs. HG.</p>
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<p>Effects of AE on mice liver histology. AE: aqueous artichoke bract extract; LD: lipid droplets; NG: normal group; HG: hyperlipidemic group; AETG: AE-treated groups; FG: fenofibrate group.</p>
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<p>Effect of AE on enzymatic biomarkers of hepatic injury in mice. AE: aqueous artichoke bract extract; AST: aspartate transaminase; ALT: alanine transaminase; ALP: alkaline phosphatase; NG: normal group; HG: hyperlipidemic group; AETG: AE-treated groups; FG: fenofibrate group. <sup>a</sup> <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001 vs. NG. * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001 vs. HG.</p>
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<p>Effect of AE on liver lipid oxidation in mice. AE: aqueous artichoke bract extract; NG: normal group; HG: hyperlipidemic group; AETG: AE-treated groups; FG: fenofibrate group. <sup>a</sup> <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001 vs. NG. * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001 vs. HG.</p>
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<p>Effect of AE on glutathione in hyperlipidemic mice. AE: aqueous artichoke bract extract; NG: normal control group; HG: hyperlipidemic group; AETG: AE-treated groups; FG: fenofibrate group. <sup>a</sup> <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01 vs. NG. * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01 and vs. HG.</p>
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<p>Effect of AE on superoxide dismutase and catalase activities in hyperlipidemic mice. AE: aqueous artichoke bract extract; NG: normal group; HG: hyperlipidemic group; AETG: AE-treated groups; FG: fenofibrate-treated group. <sup>a</sup> <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01 and <sup>b</sup> <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001 vs. NG. * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01 and ** <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001 vs. HG.</p>
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<p>Effects of AE and its major identified polyphenols on protein expression in HepG2 cells. 1,5-dCQA: 1,5-di-<span class="html-italic">O</span>-caffeoylquinic; CQA: chlorogenic acid; AE: aqueous artichoke bract extract; PCSK-9: proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9; Apo A-1: apolipoprotein A-1; SREBP-2: sterol regulatory element-binding protein 2; CYP2E1: cytochrome P450 2E1; HMG-C-R: 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-CoA reductase; p-AMPK: phosphorylated AMP-activated protein kinase. * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01, ** <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001 vs. control (0 µg/mL).</p>
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<p>Effects of AE and its major identified polyphenols on HepG2 cell viability. 1,5-dCQA: 1,5-di-<span class="html-italic">O</span>-caffeoylquinic; CQA: chlorogenic acid; AE: aqueous artichoke bract extract.</p>
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