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Transducer Systems

A special issue of Sensors (ISSN 1424-8220).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 July 2012) | Viewed by 59432

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Urs Staufer

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Micro and Nano Engineering, Precision and Microsystems Engineering (PME), Mechanical, Maritime and Materials Engineering (3mE), TU Delft, Room 34-G-1-455, Mekelweg 2, 2628 CD Delft, The Netherlands
Interests: application of nanoscientific knowledge in engineering research; scientific instrumentation; tools for nanoscience; sensing and actuating MEMS; MEMS for space and planetary research; microfabrication Contribution: Special Issue: Transducer Systems

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The coming decennia will see an increase in specific, targeted data collection to facilitate knowledge-founded decisions and operations in industrial production, food processing, healthcare, or environmental protection alike. Sensors are the essential first elements in this data collection and information-processing chain. They detect the primary information about the status of an object or situation in a specific measurement and transduce it into a processable signal. This signal is evaluated and used to drive actuators or generators. Alternatively, these transducers act based on indirect information or reliable models to control processes and products.

Each of these individual transducing elements has been given a lot of attention in the past. This current special issue likes to address the systems aspect and the integration of transducers into complete devices. Hence, we solicit review articles and original research papers on systems architecture, systems integration and fabrication, back-end processing; and applications of transducer systems e.g., for metrology, process control, µ-fluidics. New sensing, actuating or generating concepts, which are especially suited for systems integration, which make use of recently discovered phenomena, or which allow measuring or controlling so far inaccessible quantities are also considered.

Prof. Dr. Urs Staufer
Guest Editor

Keywords

  • sensor MEMS and complete devices thereof
  • actuator MEMS and complete devices thereof
  • systems architecture, back-end technology
  • packaging
  • microfluidics
  • MEMS for industrial applications
  • MEMS in metrology
  • MEMS in process control
  • MEMS in surveillance
  • MEMS systems integration
  • very large scale integrated micromechanical systems

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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1154 KiB  
Article
Two Dimensional Array of Piezoresistive Nanomechanical Membrane-Type Surface Stress Sensor (MSS) with Improved Sensitivity
by Genki Yoshikawa, Terunobu Akiyama, Frederic Loizeau, Kota Shiba, Sebastian Gautsch, Tomonobu Nakayama, Peter Vettiger, Nico F. de Rooij and Masakazu Aono
Sensors 2012, 12(11), 15873-15887; https://doi.org/10.3390/s121115873 - 16 Nov 2012
Cited by 65 | Viewed by 11262
Abstract
We present a new generation of piezoresistive nanomechanical Membrane-type Surface stress Sensor (MSS) chips, which consist of a two dimensional array of MSS on a single chip. The implementation of several optimization techniques in the design and microfabrication improved the piezoresistive sensitivity by [...] Read more.
We present a new generation of piezoresistive nanomechanical Membrane-type Surface stress Sensor (MSS) chips, which consist of a two dimensional array of MSS on a single chip. The implementation of several optimization techniques in the design and microfabrication improved the piezoresistive sensitivity by 3~4 times compared to the first generation MSS chip, resulting in a sensitivity about ~100 times better than a standard cantilever-type sensor and a few times better than optical read-out methods in terms of experimental signal-to-noise ratio. Since the integrated piezoresistive read-out of the MSS can meet practical requirements, such as compactness and not requiring bulky and expensive peripheral devices, the MSS is a promising transducer for nanomechanical sensing in the rapidly growing application fields in medicine, biology, security, and the environment. Specifically, its system compactness due to the integrated piezoresistive sensing makes the MSS concept attractive for the instruments used in mobile applications. In addition, the MSS can operate in opaque liquids, such as blood, where optical read-out techniques cannot be applied. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transducer Systems)
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Graphical abstract

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<p>Schematic illustration of the MSS. The whole surface stress induced on the round center membrane is efficiently detected by piezoresistors (red and blue colored parts) embedded in the constricted beams. Note that the new MSS chip fabricated in the present study has a different arrangement of piezoresistors on the sensing beams, which is discussed in Section 2.4.</p> Full article ">
<p>Dimensions of the sensors which are compared in the present study. All figures are illustrated in top-view. Numbers indicate the dimensions in μm. (<b>a</b>) 2G-MSS (thickness 2.5 μm); (<b>b</b>) 1G-MSS (thickness 3.2 μm); (<b>c</b>) optically read-out cantilever (thickness 1 μm); (<b>d</b>) piezoresistive cantilever (thickness 1 μm) [<a href="#b14-sensors-12-15873" class="html-bibr">14</a>]. The piezoresistors-integrated parts are magnified in the insets. Note that <span class="html-italic">R</span><sub>1</sub>, <span class="html-italic">R</span><sub>3</sub> and <span class="html-italic">R</span><sub>2</sub>, <span class="html-italic">R</span><sub>4</sub> in the 2G-MSS and 1G-MSS have the same dimensions, respectively.</p> Full article ">
<p>FEA of the distribution of Δ<span class="html-italic">R</span>/<span class="html-italic">R</span> on the <span class="html-italic">R</span><sub>2</sub> beams of (<b>a</b>) 1G-MSS and (<b>b</b>) 2G-MSS. Beam sizes: (length × width × thickness): 1G-MSS chip 5 × 36 × 3.2 μm<sup>3</sup>; 2G-MSS chip 10 × 26 × 2.5 μm<sup>3</sup>. In this simulation, only the structural components, e.g., the membrane and beams, are included. Note that the legend is valid for both (a) and (b) and is also the case for <a href="#f4-sensors-12-15873" class="html-fig">Figures 4</a> and <a href="#f5-sensors-12-15873" class="html-fig">5</a>.</p> Full article ">
<p>FEA of the distribution of Δ<span class="html-italic">R</span>/<span class="html-italic">R</span> on the <span class="html-italic">R</span><sub>2</sub> beams of the 2G-MSS chip passivated by (<b>a</b>) 650 nm of SiO<sub>2</sub> and 100 nm of Si<sub>3</sub>N<sub>4</sub> and (<b>b</b>) 80 nm of SiO<sub>2</sub> and 80 nm of Si<sub>3</sub>N<sub>4</sub>.</p> Full article ">
<p>FEA of the distribution of Δ<span class="html-italic">R</span>/<span class="html-italic">R</span> on the <span class="html-italic">R</span><sub>2</sub> beams of the 2G-MSS chip at (<b>a</b>) 250 nm and (<b>b</b>) 150 nm below the surface, respectively.</p> Full article ">
<p>The piezoresistors on (<b>a</b>) <span class="html-italic">R</span><sub>1</sub> and (<b>b</b>) <span class="html-italic">R</span><sub>2</sub> in the 2G-MSS chip.</p> Full article ">
<p>Experimental signal-to-noise ratio (<span class="html-italic">S/N<sub>exp</sub></span>) of 2G-MSS (red solid line), 1G-MSS (red dashed line), the optical cantilever (black solid line), and the piezoresistive cantilever (black dashed line) as a function of the induced surface stress. The experimental noises (<span class="html-italic">N<sub>exp</sub></span>); 1.0 μV and 1 nm for piezoresistive and optical read-outs, respectively.</p> Full article ">
<p>(<b>a</b>) Photograph of the fabricated 2G-MSS chip with a 2D array. This chip can be ready for use just by inserting the chip into a standard 0.5 mm pitch connector for an electrical connection without any additional procedure. (<b>b</b>) Enlarged SEM image of one of the MSS elements in an array of the 2G-MSS chip. (<b>c</b>) An example of MSS measurement system diagram. (Inset) Photograph of a 2G-MSS chip connected with a standard 0.5 mm pitch connector and mounted in a measurement chamber with O-rings for sealing.</p> Full article ">
<p>Obtained output signals (<span class="html-italic">V</span><sub>out</sub>) from the 2G-MSS chip (red solid line), 1G-MSS chip (red dashed line), and standard piezoresistive cantilever (black dotted line).</p> Full article ">
2187 KiB  
Article
Estimation of PSD Shifts for High-Resolution Metrology of Thickness Micro-Changes with Possible Applications in Vessel Walls and Biological Membrane Characterization
by Antonio Ramos, Ivonne Bazán, Carlos Negreira, Javier Brum, Tomás Gómez, Héctor Calás, Abelardo Ruiz and José Manuel de la Rosa
Sensors 2012, 12(11), 15394-15423; https://doi.org/10.3390/s121115394 - 9 Nov 2012
Cited by 16 | Viewed by 8537
Abstract
Achieving accurate measurements of inflammation levels in tissues or thickness changes in biological membranes (e.g., amniotic sac, parietal pleura) and thin biological walls (e.g., blood vessels) from outside the human body, is a promising research line in the medical area. It would provide [...] Read more.
Achieving accurate measurements of inflammation levels in tissues or thickness changes in biological membranes (e.g., amniotic sac, parietal pleura) and thin biological walls (e.g., blood vessels) from outside the human body, is a promising research line in the medical area. It would provide a technical basis to study the options for early diagnosis of some serious diseases such as hypertension, atherosclerosis or tuberculosis. Nevertheless, achieving the aim of non-invasive measurement of those scarcely-accessible parameters on patient internal tissues, currently presents many difficulties. The use of high-frequency ultrasonic transducer systems appears to offer a possible solution. Previous studies using conventional ultrasonic imaging have shown this, but the spatial resolution was not sufficient so as to permit a thickness evaluation with clinical significance, which requires an accuracy of a few microns. In this paper a broadband ultrasonic technique, that was recently developed by the authors to address other non-invasive medical detection problems (by integrating a piezoelectric transducer into a spectral measuring system), is extended to our new objective; the aim is its application to the thickness measurement of sub-millimeter membranes or layers made of materials similar to some biological tissues (phantoms). The modeling and design rules of such a transducer system are described, and various methods of estimating overtones location in the power spectral density (PSD) are quantitatively assessed with transducer signals acquired using piezoelectric systems and also generated from a multi-echo model. Their effects on the potential resolution of the proposed thickness measuring tool, and their capability to provide accuracies around the micron are studied in detail. Comparisons are made with typical tools for extracting spatial parameters in laminar samples from echo-waveforms acquired with ultrasonic transducers. Results of this advanced measurement spectral tool are found to improve the performance of typical cross-correlation methods and provide reliable and high-resolution estimations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transducer Systems)
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Graphical abstract

Graphical abstract
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<p>Schematic diagram of the systems developed for ultrasonic echo-imaging using arrays of <span class="html-italic">n</span> transducers.</p> Full article ">
<p>Blocks of a monochannel measurement ultrasonic system using piezoelectric transduction.</p> Full article ">
<p>(<b>a</b>) Global equivalent circuit modeling for two-way piezoelectric transducer systems, including mechanical losses and ultrasonic &amp; electronic spurious effects. (<b>b</b>) Two PSpice implementations of the Redwood model for piezoelectric stages.</p> Full article ">
<p>Echo waveform in typical pulsed ultrasonic inspections, measured with a 10 MHz transducer, at the interface between water and a low acoustic attenuation material mimicking an arterial wall.</p> Full article ">
<p>Simulated multi-pulse echoes based on a simple mathematical model of regularly spaced reflectors, emulating: (<b>a</b>) two parallel membranes (separated around 50 microns) in an amniotic sac or in a pleura using a 30 MHz pulse; (<b>b</b>) uniform reflectors distribution in an ideal tissue (10 MHz pulse).</p> Full article ">
<p>Examples of echo-signals measured with broadband ultrasonic transducers of central frequency f<sub>0</sub> = 10 MHz: (<b>a</b>) from a phantom made with two layers of latex; (<b>b</b>) from a femoral artery wall.</p> Full article ">
<p>PSD estimations by applying a non parametric technique (Periodogram) and our two parametric options based on the Yule Walker and Burg methods.</p> Full article ">
<p>(<b>a</b>) Scheme of the experimental set-up for wall displacement measurements (circulating loop mimicking a physiological pulsatile flow inside the arterial phantom). (<b>b</b>) A-Scan containing four echoes.</p> Full article ">
<p>Thirty five time-waveforms belonging to echoes experimentally acquired from the nearest wall to transducer of an elastic latex tube, filled with water under dynamic internal pressures.</p> Full article ">
943 KiB  
Article
“Capacitive Sensor” to Measure Flow Electrification and Prevent Electrostatic Hazards
by Thierry Paillat, Gerard Touchard and Yves Bertrand
Sensors 2012, 12(11), 14315-14326; https://doi.org/10.3390/s121114315 - 25 Oct 2012
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6938
Abstract
At a solid/liquid interface, physico-chemical phenomena occur that lead to the separation of electrical charges, establishing a zone called electrical double layer. The convection of one part of these charges by the liquid flow is the cause of the flow electrification phenomenon which [...] Read more.
At a solid/liquid interface, physico-chemical phenomena occur that lead to the separation of electrical charges, establishing a zone called electrical double layer. The convection of one part of these charges by the liquid flow is the cause of the flow electrification phenomenon which is suspected of being responsible of incidents in the industry. The P’ Institute of Poitiers University and CNRS has developed an original sensor called “capacitive sensor” that allows the characterization of the mechanisms involved in the generation, accumulation and transfer of charges. As an example, this sensor included in the design of high power transformers, could easily show the evolution of electrostatic charge generation developed during the operating time of the transformer and, therefore, point out the operations leading to electrostatic hazards and, then, monitor the transformer to prevent such risks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transducer Systems)
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<p>Test loop to simulate oil flow (1: pump, 2: heat regulation, 3: flow meter, 4: oil tank, 5: relaxation vessel, 6: capacitor sensor).</p> Full article ">
<p>Capacitor sensor and current measurements: 7: accumulation current, 8: upstream leakage current, 9: downstream leakage current, 10: streaming current (generating current).</p> Full article ">
<p>Typical currents measured on the sensor for “low leakage impedance” configuration (flow rate 308 L/h, temperature 40 °C).</p> Full article ">
<p>Electric equivalent circuit.</p> Full article ">
<p>Current generator behaviors <span class="html-italic">versus</span> flow rate and temperature for different new oils flowing on the same pressboard.</p> Full article ">
<p>Charge accumulation behaviors <span class="html-italic">versus</span> flow rate and temperature for different new oils flowing on the same pressboard.</p> Full article ">
<p>Charge accumulation on the pressboard surface <span class="html-italic">versus</span> oils resistivity (temperature 60 °C, flow rate 220 L/h). I: Suspicious Area; II: Intermediate Area; III: Safe Operation Area.</p> Full article ">
180 KiB  
Article
Electrostatics of Planar Multielectrode Sensors with Application to Surface Elastometry
by Eugene Danicki and Yuriy Tasinkevych
Sensors 2012, 12(9), 11946-11956; https://doi.org/10.3390/s120911946 - 29 Aug 2012
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4849
Abstract
Systems of planar electrodes arranged on dielectric or piezoelectric layers are applied in numerous sensors and transducers. In this paper electrostatics of such electrode systems is presented and exploited in the analysis of distributed piezoelectric transducer dedicated to surface elastometry of biological tissues [...] Read more.
Systems of planar electrodes arranged on dielectric or piezoelectric layers are applied in numerous sensors and transducers. In this paper electrostatics of such electrode systems is presented and exploited in the analysis of distributed piezoelectric transducer dedicated to surface elastometry of biological tissues characterized by large Poisson modulus. The fundamental Matlab® code for analyzing complex planar multiperiodic electrode systems is also presented. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transducer Systems)
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<p>Periodic system of strips with external cross-less connections within the strip cells including five strips; the arrangement used in the discussed sensor.</p> Full article ">
<p>Typical frequency dependence (<b>a</b>) of normal induction excited on piezoelectric layer residing on a tissue-like body, and (<b>b</b>) of corresponding signal <span class="html-italic">S</span> in infinite periodic system.</p> Full article ">
<p>Example <span class="html-italic">S</span>(<span class="html-italic">f</span>) measured by sensor of 20 cells for several values of Im{<span class="html-italic">k<sub>t</sub></span>}; the positions of max Im{<span class="html-italic">S</span>} are near zero frequency deviation in all cases.</p> Full article ">
4067 KiB  
Article
A Method for Evaluating the Electro-Mechanical Characteristics of Piezoelectric Actuators during Motion
by Tao Jin, Akihiro Takita, Mitra Djamal, Wenmei Hou, Hongzhi Jia and Yusaku Fujii
Sensors 2012, 12(9), 11559-11570; https://doi.org/10.3390/s120911559 - 24 Aug 2012
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 6348
Abstract
The electro-mechanical characteristics of piezoelectric actuators which have being driven are evaluated in this paper. The force generated by actuators is measured as an inertial force of a corner cub prism which is attached to the actuators. The Doppler frequency shift of a [...] Read more.
The electro-mechanical characteristics of piezoelectric actuators which have being driven are evaluated in this paper. The force generated by actuators is measured as an inertial force of a corner cub prism which is attached to the actuators. The Doppler frequency shift of a laser beam, due to the motion of actuator, is accurately measured by a heterodyne interferometer. Subsequently, the mechanical quantities, such as velocity, acceleration, force, power and displacement, are calculated from the Doppler frequency shift. With the measurement results of current and voltage of the actuator, the relationships between electrical and mechanical characteristics are evaluated. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transducer Systems)
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<p>Experimental setup.</p> Full article ">
<p>Photographs of measurement system.</p> Full article ">
<p>(<b>a</b>) The frequency of beat and rest laser beam, and mechanical quantities of PZT actuator P1; (<b>b</b>) The electrical quantities of PZT actuator P1.</p> Full article ">
<p>(<b>a</b>) The frequency of beat and rest laser beam, and mechanical quantities of PZT actuator P1; (<b>b</b>) The electrical quantities of PZT actuator P1.</p> Full article ">
<p>The instantaneous mechanical power changed against instantaneous electric power of P1, P2 and P3 from left to right.</p> Full article ">
<p>Voltage and current applied on the actuator, against displacement and force; (<b>a</b>) P1; (<b>b</b>) P2 and (<b>c</b>) P3.</p> Full article ">
<p>Voltage and current applied on the actuator, against displacement and force; (<b>a</b>) P1; (<b>b</b>) P2 and (<b>c</b>) P3.</p> Full article ">
Full article ">
<p>Velocity and force changed against displacement; (<bold>a</bold>) P1; (<bold>b</bold>) P2 and (<bold>c</bold>) P3.</p> Full article ">
373 KiB  
Article
A Comb-Drive Actuator Driven by Capacitively-Coupled-Power
by Chao-Min Chang, Shao-Yu Wang, Rongshun Chen, J. Andrew Yeh and Max T. Hou
Sensors 2012, 12(8), 10881-10889; https://doi.org/10.3390/s120810881 - 7 Aug 2012
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 10285
Abstract
This paper presents a new actuation mechanism to drive comb-drive actuators. An asymmetric configuration of the finger overlap was used to generate capacitive coupling for the actuation mechanism. When the driving voltages were applied on the stators, a voltage would be induced at [...] Read more.
This paper presents a new actuation mechanism to drive comb-drive actuators. An asymmetric configuration of the finger overlap was used to generate capacitive coupling for the actuation mechanism. When the driving voltages were applied on the stators, a voltage would be induced at the rotor due to the capacitive coupling. Then, an electrostatic force would be exerted onto the rotor due to the voltage differences between the stators and the rotor. The actuator’s static displacement and resonant frequency were theoretically analyzed. To verify the design, a comb-drive actuator with different initial finger overlaps, i.e., 159.3 μm and 48.9 μm on each side, was fabricated and tested. The results show that the actuator worked well using the proposed actuation mechanism. A static displacement of 41.7 μm and a resonant frequency of 577 Hz were achieved. Using the actuation mechanism, no electrical connection is required between the rotor and the outside power supply. This makes some comb-drive actuators containing heterogeneous structures easy to design and actuate. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transducer Systems)
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<p>Schematics of the comb-drive actuator with the actuation mechanism of capacitively-coupling-power supply. Different initial overlaps, <span class="html-italic">a</span><sub>1</sub> and <span class="html-italic">a</span><sub>2</sub>, form different initial capacitances, <span class="html-italic">C</span><sub>1</sub> and <span class="html-italic">C</span><sub>2</sub>. With the capacitance, <span class="html-italic">C<sub>r</sub></span>, which is formed between the rotor and the handle layer, a capacitive circuit is observed. Applying voltages, <span class="html-italic">V</span><sub>1</sub> and <span class="html-italic">V</span><sub>2</sub>, onto the stators and grounding the handle layer, a voltage, <span class="html-italic">V<sub>r</sub></span>, will be induced at the rotor. As long as <span class="html-italic">V</span><sub>1</sub> and <span class="html-italic">V</span><sub>2</sub> are not the same, the rotor will be moved by the net electrostatic force generated by the comb electrodes.</p> Full article ">
<p>(<b>a</b>) The testing model: a proposed actuator is sandwiched between a pair of parallel plates. A voltage of <span class="html-italic">V<sub>sef</sub></span> is applied on the upper plate, and the lower plate is grounded. A surrounding electrostatic field will be created as a possible outside interference. (<b>b</b>) The <span class="html-italic">V<sub>r</sub></span> difference induced by the surrounding electrostatic field.</p> Full article ">
<p>The fabricated comb-drive actuator with different initial overlaps. Here, <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 138, <span class="html-italic">h</span> = 50 μm, <span class="html-italic">L</span> = 1250 μm, <span class="html-italic">b</span> = 6 μm, <span class="html-italic">g</span> = 5 μm, <span class="html-italic">a</span><sub>1</sub> = 48.9 μm, <span class="html-italic">a</span><sub>2</sub> = 159.3 μm, <span class="html-italic">A<sub>sus</sub></span> = 1.218 × 10<sup>−6</sup> m<sup>2</sup> and <span class="html-italic">A<sub>anch</sub></span> = 7.414 × 10<sup>−6</sup> m<sup>2</sup>.</p> Full article ">
<p>The actuation of the proposed comb-drive actuator. (<b>a</b>) Before and (<b>b</b>) after voltages were applied onto the stators, the rotor was static and moved a distance.</p> Full article ">
<p>The estimated and measured displacements of the rotor. In this example, <span class="html-italic">V<sub>2</sub></span> was fixed at 10 volt, <span class="html-italic">V<sub>1</sub></span> was increased (from zero) to 72 volts.</p> Full article ">
<p>The measured dynamic response of the rotor.</p> Full article ">
5709 KiB  
Article
Adaptive UAV Attitude Estimation Employing Unscented Kalman Filter, FOAM and Low-Cost MEMS Sensors
by Héctor García De Marina, Felipe Espinosa and Carlos Santos
Sensors 2012, 12(7), 9566-9585; https://doi.org/10.3390/s120709566 - 13 Jul 2012
Cited by 51 | Viewed by 10262
Abstract
Navigation employing low cost MicroElectroMechanical Systems (MEMS) sensors in Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) is an uprising challenge. One important part of this navigation is the right estimation of the attitude angles. Most of the existent algorithms handle the sensor readings in a fixed [...] Read more.
Navigation employing low cost MicroElectroMechanical Systems (MEMS) sensors in Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) is an uprising challenge. One important part of this navigation is the right estimation of the attitude angles. Most of the existent algorithms handle the sensor readings in a fixed way, leading to large errors in different mission stages like take-off aerobatic maneuvers. This paper presents an adaptive method to estimate these angles using off-the-shelf components. This paper introduces an Attitude Heading Reference System (AHRS) based on the Unscented Kalman Filter (UKF) using the Fast Optimal Attitude Matrix (FOAM) algorithm as the observation model. The performance of the method is assessed through simulations. Moreover, field experiments are presented using a real fixed-wing UAV. The proposed low cost solution, implemented in a microcontroller, shows a satisfactory real time performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transducer Systems)
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Graphical abstract

Graphical abstract
Full article ">
<p>Mentor Multiplex aircraft modified by the authors to be a UAV.</p> Full article ">
<p>Axes and coordinate definitions.</p> Full article ">
<p>Algorithm block diagram. WMM is the World Magnetic Model and the GPS velocity is employed for subtract the centripetal acceleration.</p> Full article ">
<p>Block diagram of the simulation environment.</p> Full article ">
<p>Aerobatics scenario with two <span class="html-italic">loopings</span>.</p> Full article ">
<p>Estimation of the biases of the gyroscopes, employing TRIAD at the left and FOAM at the right during the aerobatics simulation shown in <a href="#f5-sensors-12-09566" class="html-fig">Figure 5</a>.</p> Full article ">
<p>Pitch angle estimation during the aerobatics, employing TRIAD in the left and FOAM in the right during the aerobatics simulation shown in <a href="#f5-sensors-12-09566" class="html-fig">Figure 5</a>.</p> Full article ">
<p>Roll angle estimation during the aerobatics, employing TRIAD in the left and FOAM in the right during the aerobatics simulation shown in <a href="#f5-sensors-12-09566" class="html-fig">Figure 5</a>.</p> Full article ">
<p>Accelerometers readings and evolution of the FOAM weights during the aerobatics simulation shown in <a href="#f5-sensors-12-09566" class="html-fig">Figure 5</a>.</p> Full article ">
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