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Bacterial Cellulose: Synthesis, Structure, and Biomedical Applications
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Bacterial Cellulose: Synthesis, Structure, and Biomedical Applications

A special issue of International Journal of Molecular Sciences (ISSN 1422-0067). This special issue belongs to the section "Macromolecules".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 May 2021) | Viewed by 53104

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Jeannine M. Coburn

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Biomedical Engineering, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA 01609, USA
Interests: biomaterials; physicochemical properties; chemical modifications; drug delivery; tissue engineering; disease modeling; engineered cancer therapeutics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

I am delighted to announce a call for submissions to a Special Issue of the International Journal of Molecular Sciences dedicated to “Bacterial Cellulose: Synthesis, Structure, and Biomedical Applications”. Bacterial cellulose is an exopolysaccharide produced by certain types of bacteria, with the highest producers being K. xylinus, K. hansenii, and A. pasteurianus. Bacterial cellulose has been investigated for many applications in the biomedical field, including vascular tissue engineering, ocular tissue engineering, musculoskeletal tissue engineering, wound dressings, drug delivery, biosensors, and beyond. Our growing understanding of bacterial cellulose synthesis, fabrication, and modification has opened up many research opportunities for this renewable material. Furthermore, research in genetic engineering, metabolic engineering, and synthetic biology to develop novel hybrid materials aims to extend the potential applications of bacterial cellulose far beyond what is achievable today.

Contributions to this Special Issue will cover recent advances in:

  • Fundamental understanding of bacterial cellulose structure;
  • Reporting on unique cellulose-producing microbial strains;
  • Genetics of cellulose-producing organisms;
  • Tools to improve production and synthesis;
  • Synthetic biology, genetic engineering, metabolic engineering approaches for alternative biomaterials, functionality, or properties;
  • Post-production non-covalent and covalent modifications;
  • Composite bacterial cellulose materials;
  • Drug delivery systems;
  • Tissue engineering and regenerative medicine;
  • Medical devices.

I encourage submission of both original research articles and topical reviews to provide new insight on the use of bacterial cellulose and hybrid biomaterials for a broad range of biomedical applications. All submitted articles will undergo peer review.

Prof. Jeannine M. Coburn
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. International Journal of Molecular Sciences is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. There is an Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal. For details about the APC please see here. Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Bacterial cellulose
  • Nanocellulose
  • Biomaterials
  • Microbes
  • Bacteria
  • Tissue engineering
  • Tissue regeneration
  • Drug delivery
  • Medical devices
  • Biosensor
  • Synthetic biology
  • Genetic engineering
  • Metabolic engineering
  • Modifications
  • Polysaccharides
  • Polymers modification
  • Biophysics

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Related Special Issue

Published Papers (8 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

21 pages, 3976 KiB  
Article
Bacterial Cellulose Membrane Containing Epilobium angustifolium L. Extract as a Promising Material for the Topical Delivery of Antioxidants to the Skin
by Anna Nowak, Paula Ossowicz-Rupniewska, Rafał Rakoczy, Maciej Konopacki, Magdalena Perużyńska, Marek Droździk, Edyta Makuch, Wiktoria Duchnik, Łukasz Kucharski, Karolina Wenelska and Adam Klimowicz
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(12), 6269; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22126269 - 10 Jun 2021
Cited by 25 | Viewed by 4242
Abstract
Bacterial cellulose membranes (BCs) are becoming useful as a drug delivery system to the skin. However, there are very few reports on their application of plant substances to the skin. Komagataeibacter xylinus was used for the production of bacterial cellulose (BC). The BC [...] Read more.
Bacterial cellulose membranes (BCs) are becoming useful as a drug delivery system to the skin. However, there are very few reports on their application of plant substances to the skin. Komagataeibacter xylinus was used for the production of bacterial cellulose (BC). The BC containing 5% and 10% ethanolic extract of Epilobium angustifolium (FEE) (BC-5%FEE and BC-10%FEE, respectively) were prepared. Their mechanical, structural, and antioxidant properties, as well as phenolic acid content, were evaluated. The bioavailability of BC-FESs using mouse L929 fibroblasts as model cells was tested. Moreover, In Vitro penetration through the pigskin of the selected phenolic acids contained in FEE and their accumulation in the skin after topical application of BC-FEEs was examined. The BC-FEEs were characterized by antioxidant activity. The BC-5% FEE showed relatively low toxicity to healthy mouse fibroblasts. Gallic acid (GA), chlorogenic acid (ChA), 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid (3,4-DHB), 4-hydroxybenzoic acid (4-HB), 3-hydroxybenzoic acid (3-HB), and caffeic acid (CA) found in FEE were also identified in the membranes. After topical application of the membranes to the pigskin penetration of some phenolic acid and other antioxidants through the skin as well as their accumulation in the skin was observed. The bacterial cellulose membrane loaded by plant extract may be an interesting solution for topical antioxidant delivery to the skin. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bacterial Cellulose: Synthesis, Structure, and Biomedical Applications)
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Graphical abstract

Graphical abstract
Full article ">Figure 1
<p>GC-MS chromatogram of FEE.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>The example chromatogram of phenolic acids identified in the FEE; gallic acid (1), 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid (2), 4- hydroxybenzoic acid (3), 3- hydroxybenzoic acid (4), chlorogenic acid (5), and caffeic acid (6).</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>The BC-10%FEE and BC-5%FEE dry membranes (<b>a</b>), the all membranes before mounting in the Franz diffusion cell (<b>b</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>FTIR-ATR spectra of bacterial cellulose—BC (violet), BC-10%FEE (red) and BC-5%FEE (green).</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>TG and DTG curves of BC membranes—BC (green), BC-10%FEE (blue), and BC-5%FEE (red).</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>The SEM micrographs of BC, BC-5%FEE, and BC-10%FEE on a scale of 5 and 20 µm.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Optical microscopy images of L929 cells after 24 h incubation with medium containing extracts from BC-5%FEE (<b>A</b>), BC-10%FEE (<b>B</b>), BC (<b>C</b>), and control (<b>D</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>The cumulative mass of phenolic acids in the acceptor fluid during the 24 h penetration. Vertical lines present standard deviation. <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 6.</p> Full article ">
18 pages, 4781 KiB  
Article
Transdermal Delivery Systems for Ibuprofen and Ibuprofen Modified with Amino Acids Alkyl Esters Based on Bacterial Cellulose
by Paula Ossowicz-Rupniewska, Rafał Rakoczy, Anna Nowak, Maciej Konopacki, Joanna Klebeko, Ewelina Świątek, Ewa Janus, Wiktoria Duchnik, Karolina Wenelska, Łukasz Kucharski and Adam Klimowicz
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(12), 6252; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22126252 - 10 Jun 2021
Cited by 31 | Viewed by 3469
Abstract
The potential of bacterial cellulose as a carrier for the transport of ibuprofen (a typical example of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) through the skin was investigated. Ibuprofen and its amino acid ester salts-loaded BC membranes were prepared through a simple methodology and characterized in [...] Read more.
The potential of bacterial cellulose as a carrier for the transport of ibuprofen (a typical example of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) through the skin was investigated. Ibuprofen and its amino acid ester salts-loaded BC membranes were prepared through a simple methodology and characterized in terms of structure and morphology. Two salts of amino acid isopropyl esters were used in the research, namely L-valine isopropyl ester ibuprofenate ([ValOiPr][IBU]) and L-leucine isopropyl ester ibuprofenate ([LeuOiPr][IBU]). [LeuOiPr][IBU] is a new compound; therefore, it has been fully characterized and its identity confirmed. For all membranes obtained the surface morphology, tensile mechanical properties, active compound dissolution assays, and permeation and skin accumulation studies of API (active pharmaceutical ingredient) were determined. The obtained membranes were very homogeneous. In vitro diffusion studies with Franz cells were conducted using pig epidermal membranes, and showed that the incorporation of ibuprofen in BC membranes provided lower permeation rates to those obtained with amino acids ester salts of ibuprofen. This release profile together with the ease of application and the simple preparation and assembly of the drug-loaded membranes indicates the enormous potentialities of using BC membranes for transdermal application of ibuprofen in the form of amino acid ester salts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bacterial Cellulose: Synthesis, Structure, and Biomedical Applications)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>(<b>a</b>) Images of BC-IBU, BC-[ValOiPr][IBU] and BC-[LeuOiPr][IBU] dry membranes and (<b>b</b>) one example (BC-[LeuOiPr][IBU] membrane) showing good dermal adherence.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>SEM images of BC, BC-IBU, BC-[ValOiPr][IBU] and BC-[LeuOiPr][IBU] (<b>a</b>) Scale of 5 μm (<b>b</b>) Scale of 10 μm.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>FTIR-ATR spectra of bacterial cellulose and API (<b>a</b>) BC (blue), IBU (red) and BC-IBU (green), (<b>b</b>) BC (blue), [ValOiPr][IBU] (red), and BC-[ValOiPr][IBU] (green), (<b>c</b>) BC (blue), [LeuOiPr][IBU] (red), and BC-[LeuOiPr][IBU] (green).</p> Full article ">Figure 3 Cont.
<p>FTIR-ATR spectra of bacterial cellulose and API (<b>a</b>) BC (blue), IBU (red) and BC-IBU (green), (<b>b</b>) BC (blue), [ValOiPr][IBU] (red), and BC-[ValOiPr][IBU] (green), (<b>c</b>) BC (blue), [LeuOiPr][IBU] (red), and BC-[LeuOiPr][IBU] (green).</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Dissolution profiles of BC-IBU, BC-[ValOiPr][IBU] and BC-[LeuOiPr][IBU]. Mean values ± standard deviation, <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 3.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Ibuprofen permeation across pigskin. Mean values ± standard deviation, <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 3.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Flux values for ibuprofen permeation from BC membranes. Mean values ± standard deviation, <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 3. Statistically significant difference from BC-IBU was estimated using the ANOVA test. Double asterisk ** means statistical difference for <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01. Brace { means statistical difference between two ibuprofenate salts.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>The permeation rate of IBU, [ValOiPr][IBU], and [LeuOiPr][IBU], permeated from BC into acceptor fluid. Mean values ± standard deviation, <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 3. Statistically significant difference from IBU was estimated using the ANOVA test. Double asterisk ** means statistical difference for <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01, single asterisk * means statistical difference for <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05. Brace { means statistical difference between two ibuprofenate salts.</p> Full article ">
17 pages, 3387 KiB  
Article
Potential of Bacterial Cellulose Chemisorbed with Anti-Metabolites, 3-Bromopyruvate or Sertraline, to Fight against Helicobacter pylori Lawn Biofilm
by Paweł Krzyżek, Grażyna Gościniak, Karol Fijałkowski, Paweł Migdał, Mariusz Dziadas, Artur Owczarek, Joanna Czajkowska, Olga Aniołek and Adam Junka
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(24), 9507; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21249507 - 14 Dec 2020
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3273
Abstract
Helicobacter pylori is a bacterium known mainly of its ability to cause persistent inflammations of the human stomach, resulting in peptic ulcer diseases and gastric cancers. Continuous exposure of this bacterium to antibiotics has resulted in high detection of multidrug-resistant strains and difficulties [...] Read more.
Helicobacter pylori is a bacterium known mainly of its ability to cause persistent inflammations of the human stomach, resulting in peptic ulcer diseases and gastric cancers. Continuous exposure of this bacterium to antibiotics has resulted in high detection of multidrug-resistant strains and difficulties in obtaining a therapeutic effect. The purpose of the present study was to determine the usability of bacterial cellulose (BC) chemisorbed with 3-bromopyruvate (3-BP) or sertraline (SER) to act against lawn H. pylori biofilms. The characterization of BC carriers was made using a N2 adsorption/desorption analysis, tensile strength test, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) observations. Determination of an antimicrobial activity was performed using a modified disk-diffusion method and a self-designed method of testing antibacterial activity against biofilm microbial forms. In addition, bacterial morphology was checked by SEM. It was found that BC disks were characterized by a high cross-linking and shear/stretch resistance. Growth inhibition zones for BC disks chemisorbed with 2 mg of SER or 3-BP were equal to 26.5–27.5 mm and 27–30 mm, respectively. The viability of lawn biofilm H. pylori cells after a 4-h incubation with 2 mg SER or 3-BP chemisorbed on BC disks was ≥4 log lower, suggesting their antibacterial effect. SEM observations showed a number of morphostructural changes in H. pylori cells exposed to these substances. Concluding, SER and 3-BP chemisorbed on BC carriers presented a promising antibacterial activity against biofilm H. pylori cells in in vitro conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bacterial Cellulose: Synthesis, Structure, and Biomedical Applications)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Diagram presenting a method used to determine an antimicrobial activity of tested substances released from BC carriers against 3-day lawn biofilm <span class="html-italic">H. pylori</span> cells. Abbreviations: BHI agar, Brain Heart Infusion agar; BHI+FCS broth, Brain Heart Infusion broth with 7% foetal calf serum; CA+HB, Columbia agar with 7% hemolysed horse blood.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>The macroscopic (<b>A</b>) and microscopic (<b>B</b>,<b>C</b>) pictures of BC carriers. The picture (<b>B</b>) was taken using SEM Auriga 60 microscope under magnification equal 50,000×; and subjected to re-processing (<b>C</b>) which allowed to calculate the porosity of carrier surface. Scale bars are equal to 1 cm in photo (<b>A</b>) and 1 µm in photos (<b>B</b>,<b>C</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Activity of bismuth subsalicylate (BIS), 3-bromopyruvate (3-BP), sertraline (SER), and amoxicillin (AMX) released from BC carriers against <span class="html-italic">H. pylori</span> 8064 and Tx30a strains measured by a modified disk-diffusion method. Asterisks stand for a statistical significance (K-W test with post-hoc Dunn’s analysis). The dot-line at the value of 15 mm represents the diameter of BC carrier. Representative photos of <span class="html-italic">H. pylori</span> 8064 growth inhibition zones and cell morphology after exposure to BC carriers not chemisorbed (a negative control) or the tested compounds. Columns with the same subscript letters (a, b, c) are not significantly different from each other (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &gt; 0.05). The presented results are the average of three independent biological tests (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 3). Scale bar is equal to 1 cm.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Viability of lawn biofilm of <span class="html-italic">H. pylori</span> 8064 and Tx30a strains after treatment for 1 h, 2 h, 3 h, and 4 h with BC carriers chemisorbed with bismuth subsalicylate (BIS); 3-bromopyruvate (3-BP), sertraline (SER), and amoxicillin (AMX). The colony forming units (CFUs) counting was performed after 3 or 7 days of culturing after exposure to these antimicrobials (the post-treatment period). The arrows indicate values below the detection threshold (500 CFU/mL, log<sub>10</sub> = 2.7). Columns with the same subscript letters (a, b, c) are not significantly different from each other (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &gt; 0.05). The presented results are the average of three independent biological tests (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 3). The results of comparing the statistical significance of all tested samples are presented in the <a href="#app1-ijms-21-09507" class="html-app">Figure S5</a>.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Representative scanning electron and fluorescence microscopy images showing an antibacterial activity of tested compounds (bismuth subsalicylate (BIS), 3-bromopyruvate (3-BP), sertraline (SER), and amoxicillin (AMX)) released from BC carriers after 4-h exposure against 3 day-old, lawn biofilm <span class="html-italic">H. pylori</span> cells. The small spherical structures (50–300 nm) are outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) secreted by bacteria. Green dye (SYTO 9) indicates live cells, while red (propidium iodide) indicates dead cells. The graph shows the ratio of mean green/red fluorescence of lawn biofilm <span class="html-italic">H. pylori</span> cells treated for 4 h with the tested substances. Columns with the same subscript letters (a, b, c) are not significantly different from each other (<span class="html-italic">p</span> &gt; 0.05), counted separately for each strain. The presented results are the average of three independent biological tests (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 3). Scale bar for SEM and fluorescence microscopy is 2 μm and 20 μm, respectively.</p> Full article ">

Review

Jump to: Research

26 pages, 41510 KiB  
Review
Surface Modification of Bacterial Cellulose for Biomedical Applications
by Teresa Aditya, Jean Paul Allain, Camilo Jaramillo and Andrea Mesa Restrepo
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022, 23(2), 610; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23020610 - 6 Jan 2022
Cited by 73 | Viewed by 8411
Abstract
Bacterial cellulose is a naturally occurring polysaccharide with numerous biomedical applications that range from drug delivery platforms to tissue engineering strategies. BC possesses remarkable biocompatibility, microstructure, and mechanical properties that resemble native human tissues, making it suitable for the replacement of damaged or [...] Read more.
Bacterial cellulose is a naturally occurring polysaccharide with numerous biomedical applications that range from drug delivery platforms to tissue engineering strategies. BC possesses remarkable biocompatibility, microstructure, and mechanical properties that resemble native human tissues, making it suitable for the replacement of damaged or injured tissues. In this review, we will discuss the structure and mechanical properties of the BC and summarize the techniques used to characterize these properties. We will also discuss the functionalization of BC to yield nanocomposites and the surface modification of BC by plasma and irradiation-based methods to fabricate materials with improved functionalities such as bactericidal capabilities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bacterial Cellulose: Synthesis, Structure, and Biomedical Applications)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>(<b>A</b>) Arrangement of microfibril in amorphous and crystalline region and its macroscopic appearance in wet conditions. (<b>B</b>) BC loaded with water and its SEM image. (<b>C</b>) Molecular structure of “cellobiose unit.” (<b>D</b>) H-bonding in the matrix of the BC. Reproduced with permission from [<a href="#B27-ijms-23-00610" class="html-bibr">27</a>] (Copyright © 2022, Elsevier), [<a href="#B32-ijms-23-00610" class="html-bibr">32</a>] (Open Access).</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>(<b>A</b>) X-ray diffraction spectrum (<b>B</b>) FTIR spectrum (<b>C</b>) Raman Spectra comparing BC, Sigma Aldrich and Avicel PH10 samples [<a href="#B29-ijms-23-00610" class="html-bibr">29</a>]. (<b>D</b>) CPMAS <sup>13</sup>C-NMR spectrum of BC fully <sup>13</sup>C labeled obtained without treatment and its carbon signal assignment. (<b>E</b>) GPC analysis of BC samples produced via batch cultivation in chemically defined medium (a), fed-batch cultivation of chemically defined medium (b), and fed-batch cultivation of waste from beer fermentation broth (WBFB) (c) in static conditions in a Jar fermenter, (<b>F</b>) table showing the molecular weight distribution obtained from GPS. Reproduced with permission from [<a href="#B38-ijms-23-00610" class="html-bibr">38</a>] (Copyright © 2022, Springer Science Business Media B.V., part of Springer), [<a href="#B39-ijms-23-00610" class="html-bibr">39</a>] (Copyright © 2022, Elsevier), [<a href="#B36-ijms-23-00610" class="html-bibr">36</a>] (Copyright © 2022 Elsevier).</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>(<b>A</b>,<b>B</b>) High Resolution XPS spectra of C1s and O1s of pure BC. (<b>C</b>,<b>D</b>) TGA and DSC analysis from 3-aminopropyl triethoxysilane treated BC membrane (BC-APS), vinyl-triethoxy silane treated BC membrane (BC-VS), acrylated BC membrane (BC-AA), acetylated BC membrane (BC-AC). Inset (<b>C</b>,<b>D</b>): initial degradation step. Reproduced with permission from [<a href="#B41-ijms-23-00610" class="html-bibr">41</a>] (Copyright © 2022, Elsevier), [<a href="#B37-ijms-23-00610" class="html-bibr">37</a>] (Open Access).</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Schematic showing the ideal biomaterial as a combination of engineered bulk and surface properties that trigger adequate immune responses while minimizing the risk of infection, commonly referred as “the race for the surface”.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Magnetic BC. (<b>A</b>) Macroscopic appearance of a magnetic BC hydrogel loaded with ferromagnetic nanoparticles. SEM images of (<b>B</b>) Pristine (left) and (<b>C</b>) magnetite-functionalized BC (right). (<b>D</b>) Magnetization saturation curve for 100 mM MBC shows that composite is superparamagnetic and has a maximum magnetic saturation of 10 emu/g. Reproduced with permission from [<a href="#B18-ijms-23-00610" class="html-bibr">18</a>] (Copyright © 2022, Journal of Visualized Experiments), [<a href="#B21-ijms-23-00610" class="html-bibr">21</a>] (Copyright © 2022, Elsevier).</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>SEM images of (<b>A</b>) pristine BC (<b>B</b>) irradiated BC. (<b>C</b>) Chemical and physical sputtering of BC surface. Reproduced with permission from [<a href="#B19-ijms-23-00610" class="html-bibr">19</a>] (Copyright © 2022, American Chemical Society).</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Silver-loaded nanopatterned BC fabricated via ion beam irradiation. (<b>A</b>) SEM images, and (<b>B</b>) nanoparticle size distribution at two different irradiation angles.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Bactericidal nanostructures fabricated in BC. (<b>A</b>) Typical antibiofouling and antimicrobial strategies implemented on hydrogels and very compliant materials. (<b>B</b>) Contact-killing via mechanical means can be the result of capillary forces in the air-liquid interface as well as tension-induced mechanical rupture. (<b>C</b>) Indentation of the bacterial envelope in Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis in contact with nanostructured BC. The asterisks and arrows indicate the indentation left on the bacterial envelope by the BC’s nanostructures before and after the cross-sectional cut, respectively; (<b>D</b>) average force values necessary to penetrate <span class="html-italic">B. subtilis, E. coli, S. typhimurium</span>, and HEK93 cells as a function of the membrane stiffness. Reproduced with permission from [<a href="#B20-ijms-23-00610" class="html-bibr">20</a>]. (Copyright © 2022, American Chemical Society).</p> Full article ">
18 pages, 1180 KiB  
Review
Systematic Understanding of Recent Developments in Bacterial Cellulose Biosynthesis at Genetic, Bioprocess and Product Levels
by Gizem Buldum and Athanasios Mantalaris
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(13), 7192; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22137192 - 3 Jul 2021
Cited by 26 | Viewed by 5007
Abstract
Engineering biological processes has become a standard approach to produce various commercially valuable chemicals, therapeutics, and biomaterials. Among these products, bacterial cellulose represents major advances to biomedical and healthcare applications. In comparison to properties of plant cellulose, bacterial cellulose (BC) shows distinctive characteristics [...] Read more.
Engineering biological processes has become a standard approach to produce various commercially valuable chemicals, therapeutics, and biomaterials. Among these products, bacterial cellulose represents major advances to biomedical and healthcare applications. In comparison to properties of plant cellulose, bacterial cellulose (BC) shows distinctive characteristics such as a high purity, high water retention, and biocompatibility. However, low product yield and extensive cultivation times have been the main challenges in the large-scale production of BC. For decades, studies focused on optimization of cellulose production through modification of culturing strategies and conditions. With an increasing demand for BC, researchers are now exploring to improve BC production and functionality at different categories: genetic, bioprocess, and product levels as well as model driven approaches targeting each of these categories. This comprehensive review discusses the progress in BC platforms categorizing the most recent advancements under different research focuses and provides systematic understanding of the progress in BC biosynthesis. The aim of this review is to present the potential of ‘modern genetic engineering tools’ and ‘model-driven approaches’ on improving the yield of BC, altering the properties, and adding new functionality. We also provide insights for the future perspectives and potential approaches to promote BC use in biomedical applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bacterial Cellulose: Synthesis, Structure, and Biomedical Applications)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Summary of recent research focusing on BC biosynthesis platforms.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Schematic representation of the synthetic circuit modeling of the BC biosynthetic pathway [<a href="#B77-ijms-22-07192" class="html-bibr">77</a>].</p> Full article ">
25 pages, 17394 KiB  
Review
Bacterial Nanocellulose toward Green Cosmetics: Recent Progresses and Challenges
by Tânia Almeida, Armando J. D. Silvestre, Carla Vilela and Carmen S. R. Freire
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2021, 22(6), 2836; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22062836 - 11 Mar 2021
Cited by 71 | Viewed by 9938
Abstract
In the skin care field, bacterial nanocellulose (BNC), a versatile polysaccharide produced by non-pathogenic acetic acid bacteria, has received increased attention as a promising candidate to replace synthetic polymers (e.g., nylon, polyethylene, polyacrylamides) commonly used in cosmetics. The applicability of BNC in cosmetics [...] Read more.
In the skin care field, bacterial nanocellulose (BNC), a versatile polysaccharide produced by non-pathogenic acetic acid bacteria, has received increased attention as a promising candidate to replace synthetic polymers (e.g., nylon, polyethylene, polyacrylamides) commonly used in cosmetics. The applicability of BNC in cosmetics has been mainly investigated as a carrier of active ingredients or as a structuring agent of cosmetic formulations. However, with the sustainability issues that are underway in the highly innovative cosmetic industry and with the growth prospects for the market of bio-based products, a much more prominent role is envisioned for BNC in this field. Thus, this review provides a comprehensive overview of the most recent (last 5 years) and relevant developments and challenges in the research of BNC applied to cosmetic, aiming at inspiring future research to go beyond in the applicability of this exceptional biotechnological material in such a promising area. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bacterial Cellulose: Synthesis, Structure, and Biomedical Applications)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Bacterial nanocellulose shapes: bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) membranes produced in static fed-batch conditions (<b>A</b>); wet BNC membrane produced in static culture in Hestrin–Schramm (HS) medium, before purification (<b>B</b>) and after purification (<b>C</b>) (adapted with permission from [<a href="#B52-ijms-22-02836" class="html-bibr">52</a>]); BNC spheres produced under agitated conditions using mannitol (<b>D</b>), glucose (<b>E</b>), and xylitol (<b>F</b>) as carbon source (reprinted with permission from [<a href="#B53-ijms-22-02836" class="html-bibr">53</a>]).</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Comparison of electron micrographs of plant cellulose (<b>A</b>) and bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) fibers (<b>B</b>) (reprinted with permission from [<a href="#B42-ijms-22-02836" class="html-bibr">42</a>]); electron micrograph of a cross-section of BNC (<b>C</b>) (Reprinted with permission from [<a href="#B29-ijms-22-02836" class="html-bibr">29</a>]).</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>General properties and applications of bacterial nanocellulose.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Main applications of bacterial nanocellulose in cosmetics.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Skin coloring 12 h after removal of BNC–DHA patches (concentration of DHA is expressed in percent), applied for 30 min (<b>a</b>) (reprinted with permission from [<a href="#B110-ijms-22-02836" class="html-bibr">110</a>]); Schematic representation of the HA-(BNC-R) MNs structure (<b>b</b>) and functioning of this innovative system: insertion of the MNs into the skin, dissolution of HA MNs and subsequent release of the bioactive molecule from the BNC membrane (<b>c</b>) (reprinted with permission from [<a href="#B119-ijms-22-02836" class="html-bibr">119</a>]). DHA: 1,3-dihydroxy-2-propanone, HA: hyaluronic acid, MN: microneedles, R: rutin.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Digital photographs and optical micrographs (10× magnification) of 10% isohexadecane-in-water emulsions prepared with different concentrations of BNC:CMC dry formulation (0.10%, 0.25%, and 0.50%) and with 0.50% CMC, taken 1 day after preparation and 30 and 90 days after storage at room temperature. Black scale bars correspond to 100 μm (reprinted with permission from [<a href="#B134-ijms-22-02836" class="html-bibr">134</a>]). CMC: carboxymethyl cellulose.</p> Full article ">
13 pages, 847 KiB  
Review
Engineering Bacterial Cellulose by Synthetic Biology
by Amritpal Singh, Kenneth T. Walker, Rodrigo Ledesma-Amaro and Tom Ellis
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(23), 9185; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21239185 - 2 Dec 2020
Cited by 41 | Viewed by 10930
Abstract
Synthetic biology is an advanced form of genetic manipulation that applies the principles of modularity and engineering design to reprogram cells by changing their DNA. Over the last decade, synthetic biology has begun to be applied to bacteria that naturally produce biomaterials, in [...] Read more.
Synthetic biology is an advanced form of genetic manipulation that applies the principles of modularity and engineering design to reprogram cells by changing their DNA. Over the last decade, synthetic biology has begun to be applied to bacteria that naturally produce biomaterials, in order to boost material production, change material properties and to add new functionalities to the resulting material. Recent work has used synthetic biology to engineer several Komagataeibacter strains; bacteria that naturally secrete large amounts of the versatile and promising material bacterial cellulose (BC). In this review, we summarize how genetic engineering, metabolic engineering and now synthetic biology have been used in Komagataeibacter strains to alter BC, improve its production and begin to add new functionalities into this easy-to-grow material. As well as describing the milestone advances, we also look forward to what will come next from engineering bacterial cellulose by synthetic biology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bacterial Cellulose: Synthesis, Structure, and Biomedical Applications)
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Figure 1
<p>The metabolic pathway to bacterial cellulose biosynthesis in <span class="html-italic">Komagataeibacter</span> and example metabolic engineering interventions made in key papers. Native pathways from glucose to central carbon metabolism (<span class="html-italic">growth</span>) are shown as blue arrows. The native pathway to cellulose biosynthesis via the BcsABCD machinery (<span class="html-italic">synthesis</span>) is shown as black arrows. Heterologous expression of a 3-gene GlcNAc utilization pathway by Yadav et al. to produce chitin-cellulose co-polymers is shown as green arrows [<a href="#B22-ijms-21-09185" class="html-bibr">22</a>]. Interventions made by Gwon et al. to boost cellulose production are indicated in red; red arrow shows insertion of a <span class="html-italic">pfkA</span> enzyme, red asterisks show altered regulation of these genes via overexpression of the cAMP receptor protein (CRP) regulator [<a href="#B24-ijms-21-09185" class="html-bibr">24</a>]. Interventions made by Hur et al. to boost cellulose production are highlighted in yellow: expression of enzymes encoded by the <span class="html-italic">galU, ndp</span> and <span class="html-italic">pgm</span> genes are optimized by RBS tuning [<a href="#B25-ijms-21-09185" class="html-bibr">25</a>]. Interventions made by Jang et al. are highlighted in orange: heterologous expression is used to boost enzyme levels encoded by <span class="html-italic">pgi</span> and <span class="html-italic">gnd</span> [<a href="#B26-ijms-21-09185" class="html-bibr">26</a>]. Genomic deletion of the <span class="html-italic">gdh</span> gene by Liu et al. to reduce gluconic acid bi-product formation is shown as a purple X [<a href="#B27-ijms-21-09185" class="html-bibr">27</a>]. Metabolite abbreviations; Glu-6-phos: glucose-6-phosphate; 6PGL: 6-phosphogluconolactone; 6PGC: 6-phosphogluconate; Fru-6-phos: fructose-6-phosphate; Fru-1-6P: fructose-1,6-diphosphate; DHAP: dihydroxyacetone phosphate; G3P: glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate; 2PG: 2-phosphoglyceric acid; PEP: phosphoenol pyruvate; PYR: pyruvate; Glu-1-phos: glucose-1-phosphate; UTP: uridine triphosphate; UDP: uridine diphosphate. UDP-Glu: UDP-glucose; GlcNac: <span class="html-italic">N</span>-acetylglucosamine; GlcNAc-1P: <span class="html-italic">N</span>-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphate; GlcNAc-6P: <span class="html-italic">N</span>-acetylglucosamine-6-phosphate; UDP-GlcNAc: UDP-<span class="html-italic">N</span>-acetylglucosamine.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Summary of synthetic biology approaches used to produce functional, living BC-based materials. Left: modular DNA parts (promoters, ribosome-binding site (RBS), coding sequence (CDS) and terminators) from synthetic libraries are assembled together to make gene expression constructs that are transformed into <span class="html-italic">Komagataeibacter</span> (rods) or yeast (circles). Centre: engineered cells are cultured to grow bacterial cellulose (BC).pellicles with a network of cellulose fibers containing within them the cells expressing synthetic gene constructs. Right: the living cells within the BC pellicle respond to light, chemicals or diffusible signaling molecules and in response create patterns in the material.</p> Full article ">
17 pages, 908 KiB  
Review
Bacterial Cellulose—Graphene Based Nanocomposites
by Omar P. Troncoso and Fernando G. Torres
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(18), 6532; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21186532 - 7 Sep 2020
Cited by 40 | Viewed by 6351
Abstract
Bacterial cellulose (BC) and graphene are materials that have attracted the attention of researchers due to their outstanding properties. BC is a nanostructured 3D network of pure and highly crystalline cellulose nanofibres that can act as a host matrix for the incorporation of [...] Read more.
Bacterial cellulose (BC) and graphene are materials that have attracted the attention of researchers due to their outstanding properties. BC is a nanostructured 3D network of pure and highly crystalline cellulose nanofibres that can act as a host matrix for the incorporation of other nano-sized materials. Graphene features high mechanical properties, thermal and electric conductivity and specific surface area. In this paper we review the most recent studies regarding the development of novel BC-graphene nanocomposites that take advantage of the exceptional properties of BC and graphene. The most important applications of these novel BC-graphene nanocomposites include the development of novel electric conductive materials and energy storage devices, the preparation of aerogels and membranes with very high specific area as sorbent materials for the removal of oil and metal ions from water and a variety of biomedical applications, such as tissue engineering and drug delivery. The main properties of these BC-graphene nanocomposites associated with these applications, such as electric conductivity, biocompatibility and specific surface area, are systematically presented together with the processing routes used to fabricate such nanocomposites. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bacterial Cellulose: Synthesis, Structure, and Biomedical Applications)
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<p>Processing routes reported for the preparation of BC- graphene oxide (GO) nanocomposites. In the first route, the pure BC membrane is disintegrated and a GO-BC suspension is prepared in order to prepare a composite BC-GO film (<b>a</b>). In the second route, GO is incorporated into the preserved BC network (<b>b</b>). In the third processing route, the BC growing medium is modified by the addition of a GO suspension and the BC network is synthetized in the presence of GO (<b>c</b>). For the fourth processing route a conventional growing medium is used to grow a first BC pellicle. Then, a modified growing medium is prepared adding a GO suspension. This modified medium is sprayed onto the first BC pellicle forming a thin layer of culture medium on which new BC nanofibres are synthetized in presence of GO (<b>d</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Schematic representation of an electronic capacitor (<b>a</b>) and a flexible electrochemical double-layer capacitor (EDLC) (<b>b</b>).</p> Full article ">
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