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A special issue of Electronics (ISSN 2079-9292). This special issue belongs to the section "Electrical and Autonomous Vehicles".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 June 2022) | Viewed by 60441

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Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Stanimir Valtchev

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Guest Editor

Faculty of Science and Technology Electrical Engineering Department, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 1099-085 Lisbon, Portugal
Interests: HF and resonant power converters; wireless energy transfer to electric vehicles; energy management and storage in DC grids; efficient micro-power devices; energy harvesting; auto-supplied sensors
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The battery, a storage device for electrical energy, is by nature mostly chemical. The charging and discharging, however, is mostly electrical, with some chemical versions like the flow battery. One of the most important battery applications is that of the electric vehicle (EV). It is also the most expensive and problematic building block of the EV, progressing daily but remaining a fragile and sensitive yet expensive block to be managed. The cells of each battery are numerous, and the inter-cell management is already a problem in terms of aging, reliability, measurement, and prognostics. This is the case even in small devices like a laptop computers. In the EV, the problem is more serious as the propulsion battery must supply and absorb high power peak values that were unthinkable years ago. At the same time, the characteristics of the battery define the total available energy (autonomy) of the vehicle. The cost and weight of a 100 kWh EV battery are notably higher than the 55-litre fuel tank, and this brought to the market the hybrid EV (HEV) and its rechargeable plug-in (PHEV) version. These HEVs do not need the complete propulsion energy to be stored in their batteries as they also boast an internal combustion motor. Fast charging is another bottleneck of the management of the vehicle, keeping in mind the chemical nature of the battery. Even if the battery producer allows 20C speed, the client should keep the velocity to something like 1–2C if they want the battery to live longer and remain healthy. The reasons are mostly chemical and thermal, but some limitations come from the cabling: the highest current that a flexible cable is going to conduct is less than 500–600A. The problem is the flexibility of the charging cable. For this reason, many companies are looking at high frequency wireless energy transfer for the charging.

The topics of interest include but are not limited to the following:

new battery types with new types of charging;
control of the battery cells charge distribution;
state-of-charge (SoC) and state-of-health (SoH) determination;
wired and wireless energy transfer for battery charging;
power converters for regulating the charge of the battery;
bi-directional charging, especially for braking energy absorption;
wireless data transfer for the safe charging of batteries;
chargers applying solar energy;
general control system of the car and the charging control;
on-line charging (during the EV movement);
three-phase bi-directional convertor for propulsion/charging of EVs;
reliability of the batteries and chargers: parallel and series probability;
general influence of EV charging to the common grid;
how to recycle or continue using the old batteries;
mid-voltage “transformer-less” converters for charging EVs, future DC grids;
environmental conditions during charging and electromagnetic effects;
hydrogen based EVs and hydrogen grids;
other similar topics.

Prof. Dr. Stanimir Valtchev
Guest Editor

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

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18 pages, 4182 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Quasi-Z-Source-Based Inductive Power Transfer System for Constant Current/Constant Voltage Charging Applications

by Vincenzo Castiglia, Nicola Campagna, Rosario Miceli, Fabio Viola and Frede Blaabjerg

Electronics 2021, 10(23), 2900; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics10232900 - 24 Nov 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2195

Abstract

This article proposes a quasi-Z-source (qZS)-based Inductive Power Transfer (IPT) system for Electric Vehicles (EVs) charging applications. The IPT systems use the magnetic field to transfer power between two coils wirelessly, achieving improved reliability, safety and less environmental impact. Compared to the conventional IPT system, the proposed qZS-IPT system simultaneously achieves DC/DC regulation and DC/AC conversion through a single-stage conversion, thus lowering the cost and complexity of the system. Moreover, the reliability of the system is improved thanks to the qZS network shoot-though immunity and the reduced number of switches. To ensure the battery efficient charging and long service life, the constant current/constant voltage (CC/CV) method is considered. With the proposed innovative modulation scheme, the qZS can easily change between buck and boost modes, respectively, lowering or increasing the secondary side current. A theoretical analysis is presented for system design. Simulation results based on a 25 kW (200 V/135 A) low duty EV charger are presented to verify the effectiveness of the proposed scheme. Experimental tests are performed on a 150 W scale-down prototype to validate the analysis and demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed qZS-IPT system for CC/CV chargers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Chargers and Management for Electric Vehicles)

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16 pages, 2987 KiB

Open AccessArticle

ECO Driving Control for Intelligent Electric Vehicle with Real-Time Energy

by Hongli He, Dan Liu, Xiangyang Lu and Juncai Xu

Electronics 2021, 10(21), 2613; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics10212613 - 26 Oct 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2421

Abstract

For the battery pack’s limited remaining power, two energy-aware ecological driving problems are discussed. A real-time energy-aware ecological driving control strategy is proposed to optimize energy consumption and meet the ECO driving demand. First, the vehicle longitudinal driving dynamics model and energy consumption model are established. Then, the optimal control problem is constructed with the maximum driving distance and the shortest driving time as the objective functions, respectively. With the multinomial Radau pseudo-spectral method, the optimization results of residual power, vehicle speed, and acceleration are obtained. The results show that in the case of in-vehicle driving the remaining power of the battery pack can be sensed in real-time, and the driving of intelligent electric vehicles can be planned in real-time to realize the most ecological driving with the largest driving distance and shortest driving time. The energy consumptions of vehicles, traveling at the same distance, are compared. The consumption obtained through optimization, is 26% less than the consumption of the vehicle that has not been optimized. The results show that the optimization process has certain advantages. In the future, as one of intelligent vehicles’ autonomous driving control strategies, the results have guiding and practical significance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Chargers and Management for Electric Vehicles)

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12 pages, 31689 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Hazards Analysis of Nickel-Rich Lithium-Ion Battery Thermal Runaway under Different States of Charge

by Kun Jiang, Pingwei Gu, Peng Huang, Ying Zhang, Bin Duan and Chenghui Zhang

Electronics 2021, 10(19), 2376; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics10192376 - 28 Sep 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2701

Abstract

The lithium-ion battery industry has been developing rapidly, with energy density and capacity constantly improving. However, the ensuing safety accidents of lithium-ion power batteries have seriously threatened the personal safety of passengers. Therefore, more and more attention has been paid to the thermal safety research of lithium-ion batteries, such as thermal runaway (TR) mechanism analysis and prevention methods, etc. In this paper, the nickel-rich 18650 lithium-ion batteries with Li[Ni_0.8Co_0.1Mn_0.1]O₂ cathode in different states of charge (SOC) are taken to investigate the TR characteristics using an extended volume plus acceleration calorimeter (EV+-ARC). In order to evaluate the TR characteristics, some characteristic parameters such as battery voltage, surface temperature, temperature rise rate, etc. are selected from the experiment to analyze the influence of SOC on the critical state of TR. It can be seen from the experiment results that the maximum temperature of the battery surface decreases with the decrease of SOC, while the self-generated heat temperature and TR trigger temperature increases with the decrease of SOC. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Chargers and Management for Electric Vehicles)

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15 pages, 1295 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Overcoming Bottlenecks for Realizing a Vehicle-to-Grid Infrastructure in Europe through Standardization

by Sameer Chandrakant Fulari and Geerten van de Kaa

Electronics 2021, 10(5), 582; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics10050582 - 2 Mar 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2864

Abstract

This paper focuses on committee–market standards battles for the case of vehicle-to-grid technology in Europe. In this battle, standards such as CHArge de MOve (CHAdeMO) and Combined Charging System (CCS) Combo are competing. The paper identifies relevant factors with the help of a literature review and expert interviews. Furthermore, the importance weights were established for the factors. The paper ends with a discussion and conclusion in which the theoretical contributions, practical implications, limitations, and recommendations for further research are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Chargers and Management for Electric Vehicles)

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12 pages, 6477 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Field-Oriented Driving/Braking Control for Electric Vehicles

by Shang-Ming Liu, Chia-Hung Tu, Chun-Liang Lin and Van-Tsai Liu

Electronics 2020, 9(9), 1484; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics9091484 - 10 Sep 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 8127

Abstract

Most electric vehicles use regenerative brakes, since this kind of braking system design recycles electromotive force to increase electric power endurance during braking. This research proposes a sensor-free, integrated driving and braking control system that uses a space-vector-pulse-width module to synthesize stator current by purpose. It calculates the rotor position angle of the motor by detecting variation in the stator current and completes a closed-loop control. When the motor receives a brake command, the controller changes the inverter-switching sequence to generate reverse torque and a magnetic field to complete the driving or braking function using field-oriented control (FOC). This provides a smoother and more accurate motor control than sinusoidal commands with Hall feedback. Compared to the regenerative brake and rheostatic brake, the proposed braking system has a powerful braking torque and shorter reaction time. Comparisons of reaction times for a modified four-wheel electric vehicle equipped with a permanent magnet synchronous motor under neutral-sliding-status, FOC based braking, and short-circuit braking were conducted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Chargers and Management for Electric Vehicles)

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Review

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31 pages, 59055 KiB

Open AccessReview

Hybrid Three-Phase Rectifiers with Active Power Factor Correction: A Systematic Review

by José Teixeira Gonçalves, Stanimir Valtchev, Rui Melicio, Alcides Gonçalves and Frede Blaabjerg

Electronics 2021, 10(13), 1520; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics10131520 - 23 Jun 2021

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 6667

Abstract

The hybrid three-phase rectifiers (HTR) consist of parallel associations of two rectifiers (rectifier 1 and rectifier 2), each one of them with a distinct operation, while the sum of their input currents forms a sinusoidal or multilevel waveform. In general, rectifier 1 is a GRAETZ (full bridge) (can be combined with a BOOST converter) and rectifier 2 is combined with a DC-DC converter. In this HTR contest, this paper is intended to answer some important questions about those hybrid rectifiers. To obtain the correct answers, the study is conducted as an analysis of a systematic literature review. Thus, a search was carried out in the databases, mostly IEEE and IET, and 34 papers were selected as the best corresponding to the HTR theme. It is observed that the preferred form of power distribution in unidirectional hybrid three-phase rectifiers (UHTR) is

55 % P_{o}

(rectifier 1) and

45 % P_{o}

(rectifier 2). For the bidirectional hybrid three-phase rectifiers (BHTR), rectifier 1 preferably takes

90 % of P_{o}

and

10 % of P_{o}

is processed by rectifier 2. It is also observed that the UHTR that employ the single-ended primary-inductor converter (SEPIC) or VIENNA converter topologies in rectifier 2 can present sinusoidal input currents with low total harmonic distortion (THD) and high Power Factor (PF), even successfully complying with the international standards. The same can be said about the rectifier that employs a pulse-width (PWM) converter of BOOST topology in rectifier 2. In short, the HTR are interesting because they allow using the GRAETZ full bridge topology in rectifier 1, thus taking advantage of its characteristics, being simple, robust, and reliable. At the same time, the advantages of rectifier 2, i.e., high PF and low THD, are well used. In addition, this article also points out the future direction of research that is still unexplored in the literature, thus giving opportunities for future innovation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Chargers and Management for Electric Vehicles)

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44 pages, 10693 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Comprehensive Review of Li-Ion Battery Materials and Their Recycling Techniques

by Hee-Je Kim, TNV Krishna, Kamran Zeb, Vinodh Rajangam, Chandu V. V. Muralee Gopi, Sangaraju Sambasivam, Kummara Venkata Guru Raghavendra and Ihab M. Obaidat

Electronics 2020, 9(7), 1161; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics9071161 - 17 Jul 2020

Cited by 136 | Viewed by 33848

Abstract

In the context of constant growth in the utilization of the Li-ion batteries, there was a great surge in the quest for electrode materials and predominant usage that lead to the retiring of Li-ion batteries. This review focuses on the recent advances in the anode and cathode materials for the next-generation Li-ion batteries. To achieve higher power and energy demands of Li-ion batteries in future energy storage applications, the selection of the electrode materials plays a crucial role. The electrode materials, such as carbon-based, semiconductor/metal, metal oxides/nitrides/phosphides/sulfides, determine appreciable properties of Li-ion batteries such as greater specific surface area, a minimal distance of diffusion, and higher conductivity. Various classifications of the anode materials such as the intercalation/de- intercalation, alloy/de-alloy, and various conversion materials are illustrated lucidly. Further, the cathode materials, such as nickel-rich LiNi_xCo_yMn_zO₂ (NCM), were discussed. NCM members such as NCM 333, NCM 523 that enabled to advance for NCM622 and NCM81are reported. The nanostructured materials bridged the gap in the realization of next-generation Li-ion batteries. Li-ion batteries’ electrode nanostructure synthesis, performance, and reaction mechanisms were considered with great concern. The serious effects of Li-ion batteries disposal need to be cut significantly to reduce the detrimental effect on the environment. Hence, the recycling of spent Li-ion batteries has gained much attention in recent years. Various recycling techniques and their effect on the electroactive materials are illustrated. The key areas covered in this review are anode and cathode materials and recent advances along with their recycling techniques. In light of crucial points covered in this review, it constitutes a suitable reference for engineers, researchers, and designers in energy storage applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Battery Chargers and Management for Electric Vehicles)

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