Remote Sensing

21 pages, 7529 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Query Strategy-Based Rank Batch-Mode Active Learning Method for High-Resolution Remote Sensing Image Classification

by Xin Luo, Huaqiang Du, Guomo Zhou, Xuejian Li, Fangjie Mao, Di’en Zhu, Yanxin Xu, Meng Zhang, Shaobai He and Zihao Huang

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(11), 2234; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13112234 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3073

Abstract

An informative training set is necessary for ensuring the robust performance of the classification of very-high-resolution remote sensing (VHRRS) images, but labeling work is often difficult, expensive, and time-consuming. This makes active learning (AL) an important part of an image analysis framework. AL [...] Read more.

An informative training set is necessary for ensuring the robust performance of the classification of very-high-resolution remote sensing (VHRRS) images, but labeling work is often difficult, expensive, and time-consuming. This makes active learning (AL) an important part of an image analysis framework. AL aims to efficiently build a representative and efficient library of training samples that are most informative for the underlying classification task, thereby minimizing the cost of obtaining labeled data. Based on ranked batch-mode active learning (RBMAL), this paper proposes a novel combined query strategy of spectral information divergence lowest confidence uncertainty sampling (SIDLC), called RBSIDLC. The base classifier of random forest (RF) is initialized by using a small initial training set, and each unlabeled sample is analyzed to obtain the classification uncertainty score. A spectral information divergence (SID) function is then used to calculate the similarity score, and according to the final score, the unlabeled samples are ranked in descending lists. The most “valuable” samples are selected according to ranked lists and then labeled by the analyst/expert (also called the oracle). Finally, these samples are added to the training set, and the RF is retrained for the next iteration. The whole procedure is iteratively implemented until a stopping criterion is met. The results indicate that RBSIDLC achieves high-precision extraction of urban land use information based on VHRRS; the accuracy of extraction for each land-use type is greater than 90%, and the overall accuracy (OA) is greater than 96%. After the SID replaces the Euclidean distance in the RBMAL algorithm, the RBSIDLC method greatly reduces the misclassification rate among different land types. Therefore, the similarity function based on SID performs better than that based on the Euclidean distance. In addition, the OA of RF classification is greater than 90%, suggesting that it is feasible to use RF to estimate the uncertainty score. Compared with the three single query strategies of other AL methods, sample labeling with the SIDLC combined query strategy yields a lower cost and higher quality, thus effectively reducing the misclassification rate of different land use types. For example, compared with the Batch_Based_Entropy (BBE) algorithm, RBSIDLC improves the precision of barren land extraction by 37% and that of vegetation by 14%. The 25 characteristics of different land use types screened by RF cross-validation (RFCV) combined with the permutation method exhibit an excellent separation degree, and the results provide the basis for VHRRS information extraction in urban land use settings based on RBSIDLC. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Machine Learning Using Medium and High-Resolution Remote Sensing Datasets)

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30 pages, 14269 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel GIS-Based Approach for Automated Detection of Nearshore Sandbar Morphological Characteristics in Optical Satellite Imagery

by Rasa Janušaitė, Laurynas Jukna, Darius Jarmalavičius, Donatas Pupienis and Gintautas Žilinskas

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(11), 2233; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13112233 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4204

Abstract

Satellite remote sensing is a valuable tool for coastal management, enabling the possibility to repeatedly observe nearshore sandbars. However, a lack of methodological approaches for sandbar detection prevents the wider use of satellite data in sandbar studies. In this paper, a novel fully [...] Read more.

Satellite remote sensing is a valuable tool for coastal management, enabling the possibility to repeatedly observe nearshore sandbars. However, a lack of methodological approaches for sandbar detection prevents the wider use of satellite data in sandbar studies. In this paper, a novel fully automated approach to extract nearshore sandbars in high–medium-resolution satellite imagery using a GIS-based algorithm is proposed. The method is composed of a multi-step workflow providing a wide range of data with morphological nearshore characteristics, which include nearshore local relief, extracted sandbars, their crests and shoreline. The proposed processing chain involves a combination of spectral indices, ISODATA unsupervised classification, multi-scale Relative Bathymetric Position Index (RBPI), criteria-based selection operations, spatial statistics and filtering. The algorithm has been tested with 145 dates of PlanetScope and RapidEye imagery using a case study of the complex multiple sandbar system on the Curonian Spit coast, Baltic Sea. The comparison of results against 4 years of in situ bathymetric surveys shows a strong agreement between measured and derived sandbar crest positions (R² = 0.999 and 0.997) with an average RMSE of 5.8 and 7 m for PlanetScope and RapidEye sensors, respectively. The accuracy of the proposed approach implies its feasibility to study inter-annual and seasonal sandbar behaviour and short-term changes related to high-impact events. Algorithm-provided outputs enable the possibility to evaluate a range of sandbar characteristics such as distance from shoreline, length, width, count or shape at a relevant spatiotemporal scale. The design of the method determines its compatibility with most sandbar morphologies and suitability to other sandy nearshores. Tests of the described technique with Sentinel-2 MSI and Landsat-8 OLI data show that it can be applied to publicly available medium resolution satellite imagery of other sensors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing and GIS for Geomorphological Mapping)

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28 pages, 2485 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Making Use of 3D Models for Plant Physiognomic Analysis: A Review

by Abhipray Paturkar, Gourab Sen Gupta and Donald Bailey

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(11), 2232; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13112232 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 5586

Abstract

Use of 3D sensors in plant phenotyping has increased in the last few years. Various image acquisition, 3D representations, 3D model processing and analysis techniques exist to help the researchers. However, a review of approaches, algorithms, and techniques used for 3D plant physiognomic [...] Read more.

Use of 3D sensors in plant phenotyping has increased in the last few years. Various image acquisition, 3D representations, 3D model processing and analysis techniques exist to help the researchers. However, a review of approaches, algorithms, and techniques used for 3D plant physiognomic analysis is lacking. In this paper, we investigate the techniques and algorithms used at various stages of processing and analysing 3D models of plants, and identify their current limiting factors. This review will serve potential users as well as new researchers in this field. The focus is on exploring studies monitoring the plant growth of single plants or small scale canopies as opposed to large scale monitoring in the field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Point Clouds for Agriculture Applications)

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36 pages, 93238 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating Carbon Monoxide and Aerosol Optical Depth Simulations from CAM-Chem Using Satellite Observations

by Débora Souza Alvim, Júlio Barboza Chiquetto, Monica Tais Siqueira D’Amelio, Bushra Khalid, Dirceu Luis Herdies, Jayant Pendharkar, Sergio Machado Corrêa, Silvio Nilo Figueroa, Ariane Frassoni, Vinicius Buscioli Capistrano, Claudia Boian, Paulo Yoshio Kubota and Paulo Nobre

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(11), 2231; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13112231 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4375

Abstract

The scope of this work was to evaluate simulated carbon monoxide (CO) and aerosol optical depth (AOD) from the CAM-chem model against observed satellite data and additionally explore the empirical relationship of CO, AOD and fire radiative power (FRP). The simulated seasonal global [...] Read more.

The scope of this work was to evaluate simulated carbon monoxide (CO) and aerosol optical depth (AOD) from the CAM-chem model against observed satellite data and additionally explore the empirical relationship of CO, AOD and fire radiative power (FRP). The simulated seasonal global concentrations of CO and AOD were compared, respectively, with the Measurements of Pollution in the Troposphere (MOPITT) and the Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) satellite products for the period 2010–2014. The CAM-chem simulations were performed with two configurations: (A) tropospheric-only; and (B) tropospheric with stratospheric chemistry. Our results show that the spatial and seasonal distributions of CO and AOD were reasonably reproduced in both model configurations, except over central China, central Africa and equatorial regions of the Atlantic and Western Pacific, where CO was overestimated by 10–50 ppb. In configuration B, the positive CO bias was significantly reduced due to the inclusion of dry deposition, which was not present in the model configuration A. There was greater CO loss due to the chemical reactions, and shorter lifetime of the species with stratospheric chemistry. In summary, the model has difficulty in capturing the exact location of the maxima of the seasonal AOD distributions in both configurations. The AOD was overestimated by 0.1 to 0.25 over desert regions of Africa, the Middle East and Asia in both configurations, but the positive bias was even higher in the version with added stratospheric chemistry. By contrast, the AOD was underestimated over regions associated with anthropogenic activity, such as eastern China and northern India. Concerning the correlations between CO, AOD and FRP, high CO is found during March–April–May (MAM) in the Northern Hemisphere, mainly in China. In the Southern Hemisphere, high CO, AOD, and FRP values were found during August–September–October (ASO) due to fires, mostly in South America and South Africa. In South America, high AOD levels were observed over subtropical Brazil, Paraguay and Bolivia. Sparsely urbanized regions showed higher correlations between CO and FRP (0.7–0.9), particularly in tropical areas, such as the western Amazon region. There was a high correlation between CO and aerosols from biomass burning at the transition between the forest and savanna environments over eastern and central Africa. It was also possible to observe the transport of these pollutants from the African continent to the Brazilian coast. High correlations between CO and AOD were found over southeastern Asian countries, and correlations between FRP and AOD (0.5–0.8) were found over higher latitude regions such as Canada and Siberia as well as in tropical areas. Higher correlations between CO and FRP are observed in Savanna and Tropical forests (South America, Central America, Africa, Australia, and Southeast Asia) than FRP x AOD. In contrast, boreal forests in Russia, particularly in Siberia, show a higher FRP x AOD correlation than FRP x CO. In tropical forests, CO production is likely favored over aerosol, while in temperate forests, aerosol production is more than CO compared to tropical forests. On the east coast of the United States, the eastern border of the USA with Canada, eastern China, on the border between China, Russia, and Mongolia, and the border between North India and China, there is a high correlation of CO x AOD and a low correlation between FRP with both CO and AOD. Therefore, such emissions in these regions are not generated by forest fires but by industries and vehicular emissions since these are densely populated regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Atmospheric Remote Sensing)

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18 pages, 2203 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Caching-Aware Intelligent Handover Strategy for LEO Satellite Networks

by Tao Leng, Yuanyuan Xu, Gaofeng Cui and Weidong Wang

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(11), 2230; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13112230 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4198

Abstract

Recently, many Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellite networks are being implemented to provide seamless communication services for global users. Since the high mobility of LEO satellites, handover strategy has become one of the most important topics for LEO satellite systems. However, the limited [...] Read more.

Recently, many Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellite networks are being implemented to provide seamless communication services for global users. Since the high mobility of LEO satellites, handover strategy has become one of the most important topics for LEO satellite systems. However, the limited on-board caching resource of satellites make it difficult to guarantee the handover performance. In this paper, we propose a multiple attributes decision handover strategy jointly considering three factors, which are caching capacity, remaining service time and the remaining idle channels of the satellites. Furthermore, a caching-aware intelligent handover strategy is given based on the deep reinforcement learning (DRL) to maximize the long-term benefits of the system. Compared with the traditional strategies, the proposed strategy reduces the handover failure rate by up to nearly 81% when the system caching occupancy reaches 90%, and it has a lower call blocking rate in high user arrival scenarios. Simulation results show that this strategy can effectively mitigate handover failure rate due to caching resource occupation, as well as flexibly allocate channel resources to reduce call blocking. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Satellite-Terrestrial Networks)

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17 pages, 8865 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Deep Learning-Based Radar Composite Reflectivity Factor Estimations from Fengyun-4A Geostationary Satellite Observations

by Fenglin Sun, Bo Li, Min Min and Danyu Qin

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(11), 2229; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13112229 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3868

Abstract

Ground-based weather radar data plays an essential role in monitoring severe convective weather. The detection of such weather systems in time is critical for saving people’s lives and property. However, the limited spatial coverage of radars over the ocean and mountainous regions greatly [...] Read more.

Ground-based weather radar data plays an essential role in monitoring severe convective weather. The detection of such weather systems in time is critical for saving people’s lives and property. However, the limited spatial coverage of radars over the ocean and mountainous regions greatly limits their effective application. In this study, we propose a novel framework of a deep learning-based model to retrieve the radar composite reflectivity factor (RCRF) maps from the Fengyun-4A new-generation geostationary satellite data. The suggested framework consists of three main processes, i.e., satellite and radar data preprocessing, the deep learning-based regression model for retrieving the RCRF maps, as well as the testing and validation of the model. In addition, three typical cases are also analyzed and studied, including a cluster of rapidly developing convective cells, a Northeast China cold vortex, and the Super Typhoon Haishen. Compared with the high-quality precipitation rate products from the integrated Multi-satellite Retrievals for Global Precipitation Measurement, it is found that the retrieved RCRF maps are in good agreement with the precipitation pattern. The statistical results show that retrieved RCRF maps have an R-square of 0.88-0.96, a mean absolute error of 0.3-0.6 dBZ, and a root-mean-square error of 1.2-2.4 dBZ. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optical and Laser Remote Sensing of Atmospheric Composition)

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25 pages, 3763 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Validation of Sentinel-3 SLSTR Land Surface Temperature Retrieved by the Operational Product and Comparison with Explicitly Emissivity-Dependent Algorithms

by Lluís Pérez-Planells, Raquel Niclòs, Jesús Puchades, César Coll, Frank-M. Göttsche, José A. Valiente, Enric Valor and Joan M. Galve

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(11), 2228; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13112228 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 4581

Abstract

Land surface temperature (LST) is an essential climate variable (ECV) for monitoring the Earth climate system. To ensure accurate retrieval from satellite data, it is important to validate satellite derived LSTs and ensure that they are within the required accuracy and precision thresholds. [...] Read more.

Land surface temperature (LST) is an essential climate variable (ECV) for monitoring the Earth climate system. To ensure accurate retrieval from satellite data, it is important to validate satellite derived LSTs and ensure that they are within the required accuracy and precision thresholds. An emissivity-dependent split-window algorithm with viewing angle dependence and two dual-angle algorithms are proposed for the Sentinel-3 SLSTR sensor. Furthermore, these algorithms are validated together with the Sentinel-3 SLSTR operational LST product as well as several emissivity-dependent split-window algorithms with in-situ data from a rice paddy site. The LST retrieval algorithms were validated over three different land covers: flooded soil, bare soil, and full vegetation cover. Ground measurements were performed with a wide band thermal infrared radiometer at a permanent station. The coefficients of the proposed split-window algorithm were estimated using the Cloudless Land Atmosphere Radiosounding (CLAR) database: for the three surface types an overall systematic uncertainty (median) of −0.4 K and a precision (robust standard deviation) 1.1 K were obtained. For the Sentinel-3A SLSTR operational LST product, a systematic uncertainty of 1.3 K and a precision of 1.3 K were obtained. A first evaluation of the Sentinel-3B SLSTR operational LST product was also performed: systematic uncertainty was 1.5 K and precision 1.2 K. The results obtained over the three land covers found at the rice paddy site show that the emissivity-dependent split-window algorithms, i.e., the ones proposed here as well as previously proposed algorithms without angular dependence, provide more accurate and precise LSTs than the current version of the operational SLSTR product. Full article

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RGB true color compositions (R-G-B 4-3-2; top) and false color compositions (R-G-B 8-4-3; bottom) for three Sentinel-2 Multispectral Instrument (MSI) scenes. The three land covers at the site are: bare soil (April, left), flooded soil, i.e., water (May, center), full vegetation (August, right). The location of the validation site is shown in the composition. Full article ">Figure 2
Fraction of vegetation cover given by the SLSTR L2 product as a function of day of year. A representative photo for each land cover is also shown. Full article ">Figure 3
Angular emissivity variation of the bare soil (left) and flooded soil (right) for the CE-312 channels centered on 11 and 12 µm. Full article ">Figure 4
LST–T11 against T11–T12 simulated from the CLAR database at the different view angles for the SLSTR SWA atmospheric coefficients retrieval. The regression functions corresponding to each angular dataset are plotted as lines in the same color as their corresponding data. Full article ">Figure 5
LST obtained with the fixed SI-121 radiometer compared to LST obtained along the transects with mobile CE-312 radiometers. Full article ">Figure 6
Operational Sentinel-3A SLSTR LST product against ground LST obtained from the SI-121 radiometer over the three seasonal land cover types at the Valencia rice paddy site. The dark grey and light grey shadows show 1-RSD and 3-RSD around the regression (dashed line). Full article ">Figure 7
LST retrieved from Sentinel-3A with emissivity-dependent algorithms against in-situ LST obtained from the SI-121 radiometer. Top left: Sobrino16. Top right: Zhang19. Bottom left: Zheng19. Bottom right: the proposed algorithm. Full article ">Figure 8
SLSTR LST retrieved with the dual-angle algorithms for the 11 µm channel (left; DAA11) and 12 µm channel (right; DAA12) against in-situ LST for the three seasonal land covers at the Valencia rice paddy site. Full article ">

19 pages, 5935 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Scale Fused SAR Image Registration Based on Deep Forest

by Shasha Mao, Jinyuan Yang, Shuiping Gou, Licheng Jiao, Tao Xiong and Lin Xiong

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(11), 2227; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13112227 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 3166

Abstract

SAR image registration is a crucial problem in SAR image processing since the registration results with high precision are conducive to improving the quality of other problems, such as change detection of SAR images. Recently, for most DL-based SAR image registration methods, the [...] Read more.

SAR image registration is a crucial problem in SAR image processing since the registration results with high precision are conducive to improving the quality of other problems, such as change detection of SAR images. Recently, for most DL-based SAR image registration methods, the problem of SAR image registration has been regarded as a binary classification problem with matching and non-matching categories to construct the training model, where a fixed scale is generally set to capture pair image blocks corresponding to key points to generate the training set, whereas it is known that image blocks with different scales contain different information, which affects the performance of registration. Moreover, the number of key points is not enough to generate a mass of class-balance training samples. Hence, we proposed a new method of SAR image registration that meanwhile utilizes the information of multiple scales to construct the matching models. Specifically, considering that the number of training samples is small, deep forest was employed to train multiple matching models. Moreover, a multi-scale fusion strategy is proposed to integrate the multiple predictions and obtain the best pair matching points between the reference image and the sensed image. Finally, experimental results on four datasets illustrate that the proposed method is better than the compared state-of-the-art methods, and the analyses for different scales also indicate that the fusion of multiple scales is more effective and more robust for SAR image registration than one single fixed scale. Full article

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25 pages, 62360 KiB

Open AccessArticle

From Acquisition to Presentation—The Potential of Semantics to Support the Safeguard of Cultural Heritage

by Jean-Jacques Ponciano, Claire Prudhomme and Frank Boochs

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(11), 2226; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13112226 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3332

Abstract

The signature of the 2019 Declaration of Cooperation on advancing the digitization of cultural heritage in Europe shows the important role that the 3D digitization process plays in the safeguard and sustainability of cultural heritage. The digitization also aims at sharing and presenting [...] Read more.

The signature of the 2019 Declaration of Cooperation on advancing the digitization of cultural heritage in Europe shows the important role that the 3D digitization process plays in the safeguard and sustainability of cultural heritage. The digitization also aims at sharing and presenting cultural heritage. However, the processing steps of data acquisition to its presentation requires an interdisciplinary collaboration, where understanding and collaborative work is difficult due to the presence of different expert knowledge involved. This study proposes an end-to-end method from the cultural data acquisition to its presentation thanks to explicit semantics representing the different fields of expert knowledge intervening in this process. This method is composed of three knowledge-based processing steps: (i) a recommendation process of acquisition technology to support cultural data acquisition; (ii) an object recognition process to structure the unstructured acquired data; and (iii) an enrichment process based on Linked Open Data to document cultural objects with further information, such as geospatial, cultural, and historical information. The proposed method was applied in two case studies concerning the watermills of Ephesos terrace house 2 and the first Sacro Monte chapel in Varallo. These application cases show the proposed method’s ability to recognize and document digitized cultural objects in different contexts thanks to the semantics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing, Metric Survey and Spatial Information Technologies for Heritage Management)

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19 pages, 6626 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Tropospheric Volcanic SO₂ Mass and Flux Retrievals from Satellite. The Etna December 2018 Eruption

by Stefano Corradini, Lorenzo Guerrieri, Hugues Brenot, Lieven Clarisse, Luca Merucci, Federica Pardini, Alfred J. Prata, Vincent J. Realmuto, Dario Stelitano and Nicolas Theys

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(11), 2225; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13112225 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3702

Abstract

The presence of volcanic clouds in the atmosphere affects air quality, the environment, climate, human health and aviation safety. The importance of the detection and retrieval of volcanic SO₂ lies with risk mitigation as well as with the possibility of providing insights [...] Read more.

The presence of volcanic clouds in the atmosphere affects air quality, the environment, climate, human health and aviation safety. The importance of the detection and retrieval of volcanic SO₂ lies with risk mitigation as well as with the possibility of providing insights into the mechanisms that cause eruptions. Due to their intrinsic characteristics, satellite measurements have become an essential tool for volcanic monitoring. In recent years, several sensors, with different spectral, spatial and temporal resolutions, have been launched into orbit, significantly increasing the effectiveness of the estimation of the various parameters related to the state of volcanic activity. In this work, the SO₂ total masses and fluxes were obtained from several satellite sounders—the geostationary (GEO) MSG-SEVIRI and the polar (LEO) Aqua/Terra-MODIS, NPP/NOAA20-VIIRS, Sentinel5p-TROPOMI, MetopA/MetopB-IASI and Aqua-AIRS—and compared to one another. As a test case, the Christmas 2018 Etna eruption was considered. The characteristics of the eruption (tropospheric with low ash content), the large amount of (simultaneously) available data and the different instrument types and SO₂ columnar abundance retrieval strategies make this cross-comparison particularly relevant. Results show the higher sensitivity of TROPOMI and IASI and a general good agreement between the SO₂ total masses and fluxes obtained from all the satellite instruments. The differences found are either related to inherent instrumental sensitivity or the assumed and/or calculated SO₂ cloud height considered as input for the satellite retrievals. Results indicate also that, despite their low revisit time, the LEO sensors are able to provide information on SO₂ flux over large time intervals. Finally, a complete error assessment on SO₂ flux retrievals using SEVIRI data was realized by considering uncertainties in wind speed and SO₂ abundance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multi-Sensor Remote Sensing Data for Volcanic Hazards Monitoring)

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18 pages, 6101 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Squint Model InISAR Imaging Method Based on Reference Interferometric Phase Construction and Coordinate Transformation

by Yu Li, Yunhua Zhang and Xiao Dong

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(11), 2224; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13112224 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2566

Abstract

The imaging quality of InISAR under squint geometry can be greatly degraded due to the serious interferometric phase ambiguity (InPhaA) and thus result in image distortion problems. Aiming to solve these problems, a three-dimensional InISAR (3D ISAR) imaging method based on reference InPhas [...] Read more.

The imaging quality of InISAR under squint geometry can be greatly degraded due to the serious interferometric phase ambiguity (InPhaA) and thus result in image distortion problems. Aiming to solve these problems, a three-dimensional InISAR (3D ISAR) imaging method based on reference InPhas construction and coordinate transformation is presented in this paper. First, the target’s 3D coarse location is obtained by the cross-correlation algorithm, and a relatively stronger scatterer is taken as the reference scatterer to construct the reference interferometric phases (InPhas) so as to remove the InPhaA and restore the real InPhas. The selected scatterer needs not to be exactly in the center of the coarsely located target. Then, the image distortion is corrected by coordinate transformation, and finally the 3D coordinates of the target can be accurately estimated. Both simulation and practical experiment results validate the effectiveness of the method. Full article

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32 pages, 13227 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Drivers of Organic Carbon Stocks in Different LULC History and along Soil Depth for a 30 Years Image Time Series

by Mahboobeh Tayebi, Jorge Tadeu Fim Rosas, Wanderson de Sousa Mendes, Raul Roberto Poppiel, Yaser Ostovari, Luis Fernando Chimelo Ruiz, Natasha Valadares dos Santos, Carlos Eduardo Pellegrino Cerri, Sérgio Henrique Godinho Silva, Nilton Curi, Nélida Elizabet Quiñonez Silvero and José A. M. Demattê

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(11), 2223; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13112223 - 7 Jun 2021

Cited by 33 | Viewed by 5247

Abstract

Soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks are a remarkable property for soil and environmental monitoring. The understanding of their dynamics in crop soils must go forward. The objective of this study was to determine the impact of temporal environmental controlling factors obtained by satellite [...] Read more.

Soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks are a remarkable property for soil and environmental monitoring. The understanding of their dynamics in crop soils must go forward. The objective of this study was to determine the impact of temporal environmental controlling factors obtained by satellite images over the SOC stocks along soil depth, using machine learning algorithms. The work was carried out in São Paulo state (Brazil) in an area of 2577 km². We obtained a dataset of boreholes with soil analyses from topsoil to subsoil (0–100 cm). Additionally, remote sensing covariates (30 years of land use history, vegetation indexes), soil properties (i.e., clay, sand, mineralogy), soil types (classification), geology, climate and relief information were used. All covariates were confronted with SOC stocks contents, to identify their impact. Afterwards, the abilities of the predictive models were tested by splitting soil samples into two random groups (70 for training and 30% for model testing). We observed that the mean values of SOC stocks decreased by increasing the depth in all land use and land cover (LULC) historical classes. The results indicated that the random forest with recursive features elimination (RFE) was an accurate technique for predicting SOC stocks and finding controlling factors. We also found that the soil properties (especially clay and CEC), terrain attributes, geology, bioclimatic parameters and land use history were the most critical factors in controlling the SOC stocks in all LULC history and soil depths. We concluded that random forest coupled with RFE could be a functional approach to detect, map and monitor SOC stocks using environmental and remote sensing data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Topsoil Characterization by Means of Remote Sensing)

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14 pages, 6782 KiB

Open AccessCommunication

Spatio-Temporal Distribution of Ground Deformation Due to 2018 Lombok Earthquake Series

by Sandy Budi Wibowo, Danang Sri Hadmoko, Yunus Isnaeni, Nur Mohammad Farda, Ade Febri Sandhini Putri, Idea Wening Nurani and Suhono Harso Supangkat

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(11), 2222; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13112222 - 6 Jun 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 4896

Abstract

Lombok Island in Indonesia was hit by four major earthquakes (6.4 Mw to 7 Mw) and by at least 818 earthquakes between 29 July and 31 August 2018. The aims of this study are to measure ground deformation due to the 2018 Lombok [...] Read more.

Lombok Island in Indonesia was hit by four major earthquakes (6.4 Mw to 7 Mw) and by at least 818 earthquakes between 29 July and 31 August 2018. The aims of this study are to measure ground deformation due to the 2018 Lombok earthquake series and to map its spatio-temporal distribution. The application of DinSAR was performed to produce an interferogram and deformation map. Time series Sentinel-1 satellite imageries were used as master and slave for each of these four major earthquakes. The spatio-temporal distribution of the ground deformation was analyzed using a zonal statistics algorithm in GIS. It focused on the overlapping area between the raster layer of the deformation map and the polygon layer of six observation sites (Mataram City, Pamenang, Tampes, Sukadana, Sembalun, and Belanting). The results showed that the deformation includes uplift and subsidence. The first 6.4 Mw foreshock hitting on 29 July 2018 produces a minimum uplift effect on the island. The 7.0 Mw mainshock on 5 August 2018 causes extreme uplift at the northern shore. The 6.2 Mw Aftershock on 9 August 2018 generates subsidence throughout the study area. The final earthquake of 6.9 Mw on 19 August 2018 initiates massive uplift in the study area and extreme uplift at the northeastern shore. The highest uplift reaches 0.713 m at the northern shore, while the deepest subsidence is measured −0.338 m at the northwestern shore. Dominant deformation on the northern area of Lombok Island indicates movement of Back Arc Trust in the north of the island. The output of this study would be valuable to local authorities to evaluate existing earthquake’s impacts and to design mitigation strategies to face earthquake-induced ground displacement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Earthquakes and Co-seismic Mass Movements Remote Sensing: From Prediction to Crisis Management )

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26 pages, 6427 KiB

Open AccessArticle

An Efficient Approach Based on Privacy-Preserving Deep Learning for Satellite Image Classification

by Munirah Alkhelaiwi, Wadii Boulila, Jawad Ahmad, Anis Koubaa and Maha Driss

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(11), 2221; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13112221 - 6 Jun 2021

Cited by 73 | Viewed by 7126

Abstract

Satellite images have drawn increasing interest from a wide variety of users, including business and government, ever since their increased usage in important fields ranging from weather, forestry and agriculture to surface changes and biodiversity monitoring. Recent updates in the field have also [...] Read more.

Satellite images have drawn increasing interest from a wide variety of users, including business and government, ever since their increased usage in important fields ranging from weather, forestry and agriculture to surface changes and biodiversity monitoring. Recent updates in the field have also introduced various deep learning (DL) architectures to satellite imagery as a means of extracting useful information. However, this new approach comes with its own issues, including the fact that many users utilize ready-made cloud services (both public and private) in order to take advantage of built-in DL algorithms and thus avoid the complexity of developing their own DL architectures. However, this presents new challenges to protecting data against unauthorized access, mining and usage of sensitive information extracted from that data. Therefore, new privacy concerns regarding sensitive data in satellite images have arisen. This research proposes an efficient approach that takes advantage of privacy-preserving deep learning (PPDL)-based techniques to address privacy concerns regarding data from satellite images when applying public DL models. In this paper, we proposed a partially homomorphic encryption scheme (a Paillier scheme), which enables processing of confidential information without exposure of the underlying data. Our method achieves robust results when applied to a custom convolutional neural network (CNN) as well as to existing transfer learning methods. The proposed encryption scheme also allows for training CNN models on encrypted data directly, which requires lower computational overhead. Our experiments have been performed on a real-world dataset covering several regions across Saudi Arabia. The results demonstrate that our CNN-based models were able to retain data utility while maintaining data privacy. Security parameters such as correlation coefficient (−0.004), entropy (7.95), energy (0.01), contrast (10.57), number of pixel change rate (4.86), unified average change intensity (33.66), and more are in favor of our proposed encryption scheme. To the best of our knowledge, this research is also one of the first studies that applies PPDL-based techniques to satellite image data in any capacity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Land Use Classification with GIS and Remote Sensing Data Based on AI Technology)

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20 pages, 14114 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancement of Detecting Permanent Water and Temporary Water in Flood Disasters by Fusing Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2 Imagery Using Deep Learning Algorithms: Demonstration of Sen1Floods11 Benchmark Datasets

by Yanbing Bai, Wenqi Wu, Zhengxin Yang, Jinze Yu, Bo Zhao, Xing Liu, Hanfang Yang, Erick Mas and Shunichi Koshimura

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(11), 2220; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13112220 - 5 Jun 2021

Cited by 59 | Viewed by 8541

Abstract

Identifying permanent water and temporary water in flood disasters efficiently has mainly relied on change detection method from multi-temporal remote sensing imageries, but estimating the water type in flood disaster events from only post-flood remote sensing imageries still remains challenging. Research progress in [...] Read more.

Identifying permanent water and temporary water in flood disasters efficiently has mainly relied on change detection method from multi-temporal remote sensing imageries, but estimating the water type in flood disaster events from only post-flood remote sensing imageries still remains challenging. Research progress in recent years has demonstrated the excellent potential of multi-source data fusion and deep learning algorithms in improving flood detection, while this field has only been studied initially due to the lack of large-scale labelled remote sensing images of flood events. Here, we present new deep learning algorithms and a multi-source data fusion driven flood inundation mapping approach by leveraging a large-scale publicly available Sen1Flood11 dataset consisting of roughly 4831 labelled Sentinel-1 SAR and Sentinel-2 optical imagery gathered from flood events worldwide in recent years. Specifically, we proposed an automatic segmentation method for surface water, permanent water, and temporary water identification, and all tasks share the same convolutional neural network architecture. We utilize focal loss to deal with the class (water/non-water) imbalance problem. Thorough ablation experiments and analysis confirmed the effectiveness of various proposed designs. In comparison experiments, the method proposed in this paper is superior to other classical models. Our model achieves a mean Intersection over Union (mIoU) of

52.99 %

, Intersection over Union (IoU) of

52.30 %

, and Overall Accuracy (OA) of

92.81 %

on the Sen1Flood11 test set. On the Sen1Flood11 Bolivia test set, our model also achieves very high mIoU (

47.88 %

), IoU (

76.74 %

), and OA (

95.59 %

) and shows good generalization ability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Improving Disaster Damage and Loss Assessments by Modeling and Remote Sensing Techniques)

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Full article ">Figure 1
Sample locations of flood event data. Full article ">Figure 2
Example of all the bands. Full article ">Figure 3
Illustration of water label. (a) example of hand labeled data of all water; (b) example of hand labeled data of permanent water; (c) the illustration of temporary water, permanent water, and all water. Full article ">Figure 4
Flowchart of water type detection proposed in this work. Full article ">Figure 5
Architecture of the BASNet used in this study. Full article ">Figure 6
Qualitative comparison of proposed method with other methods. Each row represents one image and corresponding flooding maps (binary maps for the Otsu method, probability maps for FCN-ResNet50, Deeplab, <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mi>U</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Net, and our model). Each column represents one method. Results shown on all water (AW), permanent water (PW), and temporary water (TW). Full article ">Figure 7
Qualitative comparison of proposed method with other methods. Each row represents one image and corresponding flooding maps (binary maps for the Otsu method, probability maps for FCN-ResNet50, Deeplab, <math display="inline"><semantics> <msup> <mi>U</mi> <mn>2</mn> </msup> </semantics></math>Net, and our model). Each column represents one method. Results shown on all water (AW), permanent water (PW), and temporary water (TW). Full article ">

23 pages, 10133 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

SAMIRA-SAtellite Based Monitoring Initiative for Regional Air Quality

by Kerstin Stebel, Iwona S. Stachlewska, Anca Nemuc, Jan Horálek, Philipp Schneider, Nicolae Ajtai, Andrei Diamandi, Nina Benešová, Mihai Boldeanu, Camelia Botezan, Jana Marková, Rodica Dumitrache, Amalia Iriza-Burcă, Roman Juras, Doina Nicolae, Victor Nicolae, Petr Novotný, Horațiu Ștefănie, Lumír Vaněk, Ondrej Vlček, Olga Zawadzka-Manko and Claus Zehner Show full author list Hide full author list

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(11), 2219; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13112219 - 5 Jun 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5656

Abstract

The satellite based monitoring initiative for regional air quality (SAMIRA) initiative was set up to demonstrate the exploitation of existing satellite data for monitoring regional and urban scale air quality. The project was carried out between May 2016 and December 2019 and focused [...] Read more.

The satellite based monitoring initiative for regional air quality (SAMIRA) initiative was set up to demonstrate the exploitation of existing satellite data for monitoring regional and urban scale air quality. The project was carried out between May 2016 and December 2019 and focused on aerosol optical depth (AOD), particulate matter (PM), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), and sulfur dioxide (SO₂). SAMIRA was built around several research tasks: 1. The spinning enhanced visible and infrared imager (SEVIRI) AOD optimal estimation algorithm was improved and geographically extended from Poland to Romania, the Czech Republic and Southern Norway. A near real-time retrieval was implemented and is currently operational. Correlation coefficients of 0.61 and 0.62 were found between SEVIRI AOD and ground-based sun-photometer for Romania and Poland, respectively. 2. A retrieval for ground-level concentrations of PM_2.5 was implemented using the SEVIRI AOD in combination with WRF-Chem output. For representative sites a correlation of 0.56 and 0.49 between satellite-based PM_2.5 and in situ PM_2.5 was found for Poland and the Czech Republic, respectively. 3. An operational algorithm for data fusion was extended to make use of various satellite-based air quality products (NO₂, SO₂, AOD, PM_2.5 and PM₁₀). For the Czech Republic inclusion of satellite data improved mapping of NO₂ in rural areas and on an annual basis in urban background areas. It slightly improved mapping of rural and urban background SO₂. The use of satellites based AOD or PM_2.5 improved mapping results for PM_2.5 and PM₁₀. 4. A geostatistical downscaling algorithm for satellite-based air quality products was developed to bridge the gap towards urban-scale applications. Initial testing using synthetic data was followed by applying the algorithm to OMI NO₂ data with a direct comparison against high-resolution TROPOMI NO₂ as a reference, thus allowing for a quantitative assessment of the algorithm performance and demonstrating significant accuracy improvements after downscaling. We can conclude that SAMIRA demonstrated the added value of using satellite data for regional- and urban-scale air quality monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Future of Air Quality Monitoring by Remote Sensing)

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24 pages, 48673 KiB

Open AccessArticle

MDCwFB: A Multilevel Dense Connection Network with Feedback Connections for Pansharpening

by Weisheng Li, Minghao Xiang and Xuesong Liang

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(11), 2218; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13112218 - 5 Jun 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2203

Abstract

In most practical applications of remote sensing images, high-resolution multispectral images are needed. Pansharpening aims to generate high-resolution multispectral (MS) images from the input of high spatial resolution single-band panchromatic (PAN) images and low spatial resolution multispectral images. Inspired by the remarkable results [...] Read more.

In most practical applications of remote sensing images, high-resolution multispectral images are needed. Pansharpening aims to generate high-resolution multispectral (MS) images from the input of high spatial resolution single-band panchromatic (PAN) images and low spatial resolution multispectral images. Inspired by the remarkable results of other researchers in pansharpening based on deep learning, we propose a multilevel dense connection network with a feedback connection. Our network consists of four parts. The first part consists of two identical subnetworks to extract features from PAN and MS images. The second part is a multilevel feature fusion and recovery network, which is used to fuse images in the feature domain and to encode and decode features at different levels so that the network can fully capture different levels of information. The third part is a continuous feedback operation, which refines shallow features by feedback. The fourth part is an image reconstruction network. High-quality images are recovered by making full use of multistage decoding features through dense connections. Experiments on different satellite datasets show that our proposed method is superior to existing methods, through subjective visual evaluation and objective evaluation indicators. Compared with the results of other models, our results achieve significant gains on the multiple objective index values used to measure the spectral quality and spatial details of the generated image, namely spectral angle mapper (SAM), relative global dimensional synthesis error (ERGAS), and structural similarity (SSIM). Full article

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16 pages, 4871 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physical Retrieval of Rain Rate from Ground-Based Microwave Radiometry

by Wenyue Wang, Klemens Hocke and Christian Mätzler

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(11), 2217; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13112217 - 5 Jun 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3140

Abstract

Because of its clear physical meaning, physical methods are more often used for space-borne microwave radiometers to retrieve the rain rate, but they are rarely used for ground-based microwave radiometers that are very sensitive to rainfall. In this article, an opacity physical retrieval [...] Read more.

Because of its clear physical meaning, physical methods are more often used for space-borne microwave radiometers to retrieve the rain rate, but they are rarely used for ground-based microwave radiometers that are very sensitive to rainfall. In this article, an opacity physical retrieval method is implemented to retrieve the rain rate (denoted as Opa-RR) using ground-based microwave radiometer data (21.4 and 31.5 GHz) of the tropospheric water radiometer (TROWARA) at Bern, Switzerland from 2005 to 2019. The Opa-RR firstly establishes a direct connection between the rain rate and the enhanced atmospheric opacity during rain, then iteratively adjusts the rain effective temperature to determine the rain opacity, based on the radiative transfer equation, and finally estimates the rain rate. These estimations are compared with the available simultaneous rain rate derived from rain gauge data and reanalysis data (ERA5). The results and the intercomparison demonstrate that during moderate rains and at the 31 GHz channel, the Opa-RR method was close to the actual situation and capable of the rain rate estimation. In addition, the Opa-RR method can well derive the changes in cumulative rain over time (day, month, and year), and the monthly rain rate estimation is superior, with the rain gauge validated R² and the root-mean-square error value of 0.77 and 22.46 mm/month, respectively. Compared with ERA5, Opa-RR at 31GHz achieves a competitive performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing for Precipitation Retrievals)

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21 pages, 8829 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Improved Transformer Net for Hyperspectral Image Classification

by Yuhao Qing, Wenyi Liu, Liuyan Feng and Wanjia Gao

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(11), 2216; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13112216 - 5 Jun 2021

Cited by 135 | Viewed by 7217

Abstract

In recent years, deep learning has been successfully applied to hyperspectral image classification (HSI) problems, with several convolutional neural network (CNN) based models achieving an appealing classification performance. However, due to the multi-band nature and the data redundancy of the hyperspectral data, the [...] Read more.

In recent years, deep learning has been successfully applied to hyperspectral image classification (HSI) problems, with several convolutional neural network (CNN) based models achieving an appealing classification performance. However, due to the multi-band nature and the data redundancy of the hyperspectral data, the CNN model underperforms in such a continuous data domain. Thus, in this article, we propose an end-to-end transformer model entitled SAT Net that is appropriate for HSI classification and relies on the self-attention mechanism. The proposed model uses the spectral attention mechanism and the self-attention mechanism to extract the spectral–spatial features of the HSI image, respectively. Initially, the original HSI data are remapped into multiple vectors containing a series of planar 2D patches after passing through the spectral attention module. On each vector, we perform linear transformation compression to obtain the sequence vector length. During this process, we add the position–coding vector and the learnable–embedding vector to manage capturing the continuous spectrum relationship in the HSI at a long distance. Then, we employ several multiple multi-head self-attention modules to extract the image features and complete the proposed network with a residual network structure to solve the gradient dispersion and over-fitting problems. Finally, we employ a multilayer perceptron for the HSI classification. We evaluate SAT Net on three publicly available hyperspectral datasets and challenge our classification performance against five current classification methods employing several metrics, i.e., overall and average classification accuracy and Kappa coefficient. Our trials demonstrate that SAT Net attains a competitive classification highlighting that a Self-Attention Transformer network and is appealing for HSI classification. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Machine Learning for Remote Sensing Image/Signal Processing)

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18 pages, 18659 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Modify the Accuracy of MODIS PWV in China: A Performance Comparison Using Random Forest, Generalized Regression Neural Network and Back-Propagation Neural Network

by Zhaohui Xiong, Xiaogong Sun, Jizhang Sang and Xiaomin Wei

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(11), 2215; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13112215 - 5 Jun 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2728

Abstract

Water vapor plays an important role in climate change and water cycling, but there are few water vapor products with both high spatial resolution and high accuracy that effectively monitor the change of water vapor. The high precision Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) [...] Read more.

Water vapor plays an important role in climate change and water cycling, but there are few water vapor products with both high spatial resolution and high accuracy that effectively monitor the change of water vapor. The high precision Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Precipitable Water Vapor (PWV) is often used to calibrate the high spatial resolution Moderate-resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) PWV to produce new PWV product with high accuracy and high spatial resolution. In addition, the machine learning method has a good performance in modifying the accuracy of MODIS PWV. However, the accuracy improvement of different machine learning methods and different modeling timescale is different. In this article, we use three machine learning methods, namely, the Random Forest (RF), Generalized Regression Neural Network (GRNN), and Back-propagation Neural Network (BPNN) to calibrate MODIS PWV in 2019, at annual and monthly timescales. We also use the Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) method for comparison. The root mean squares (RMSs) at the annual timescale with the three machine learning methods are 4.1 mm (BPNN), 3.3 mm (RF), and 3.9 mm (GRNN), and the average RMSs become 2.9 mm (BPNN), 2.8 mm (RF), and 2.5 mm (GRNN) at the monthly timescale. Those results are all better than the MLR method (5.0 mm at the annual timescale and 4.6 mm at the monthly timescale). When there is an obvious variation pattern in the training sample, the RF method can capture the pattern to achieve the best results since the RF achieves the best performance at the annual timescale. Dividing such samples into several sub-samples each having higher internal consistency could further improve the performance of machine learning methods, especially for the GRNN, since GRNN achieves the best performance at the monthly timescale, and the performance of those three machine learning methods at the monthly timescale is better than that of annual timescale. The spatial and temporal variation patterns of the RMS values are significantly weakened after the modeling by machine learning methods for both three methods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Two Decades of MODIS Data for Land Surface Monitoring: Exploitation of Existing Products and Development of New Algorithms)

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27 pages, 15625 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Burned Area Mapping Algorithm for Sentinel-2 Data Based on Approximate Reasoning and Region Growing

by Matteo Sali, Erika Piaser, Mirco Boschetti, Pietro Alessandro Brivio, Giovanna Sona, Gloria Bordogna and Daniela Stroppiana

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(11), 2214; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13112214 - 5 Jun 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4512

Abstract

Sentinel-2 (S2) multi-spectral instrument (MSI) images are used in an automated approach built on fuzzy set theory and a region growing (RG) algorithm to identify areas affected by fires in Mediterranean regions. S2 spectral bands and their post- and pre-fire date (Δ_post-pre [...] Read more.

Sentinel-2 (S2) multi-spectral instrument (MSI) images are used in an automated approach built on fuzzy set theory and a region growing (RG) algorithm to identify areas affected by fires in Mediterranean regions. S2 spectral bands and their post- and pre-fire date (Δ_post-pre) difference are interpreted as evidence of burn through soft constraints of membership functions defined from statistics of burned/unburned training regions; evidence of burn brought by the S2 spectral bands (partial evidence) is integrated using ordered weighted averaging (OWA) operators that provide synthetic score layers of likelihood of burn (global evidence of burn) that are combined in an RG algorithm. The algorithm is defined over a training site located in Italy, Vesuvius National Park, where membership functions are defined and OWA and RG algorithms are first tested. Over this site, validation is carried out by comparison with reference fire perimeters derived from supervised classification of very high-resolution (VHR) PlanetScope images leading to more than satisfactory results with Dice coefficient > 0.84, commission error < 0.22 and omission error < 0.15. The algorithm is tested for exportability over five sites in Portugal (1), Spain (2) and Greece (2) to evaluate the performance by comparison with fire reference perimeters derived from the Copernicus Emergency Management Service (EMS) database. In these sites, we estimate commission error < 0.15, omission error < 0.1 and Dice coefficient > 0.9 with accuracy in some cases greater than values obtained in the training site. Regression analysis confirmed the satisfactory accuracy levels achieved over all sites. The algorithm proposed offers the advantages of being least dependent on a priori/supervised selection for input bands (by building on the integration of redundant partial burn evidence) and for criteria/threshold to obtain segmentation into burned/unburned areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing in Forest Fire Monitoring and Post-fire Damage Analysis)

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15 pages, 7843 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Regional Assessments of Surface Ice Elevations from Swath-Processed CryoSat-2 SARIn Data

by Natalia Havelund Andersen, Sebastian Bjerregaard Simonsen, Mai Winstrup, Johan Nilsson and Louise Sandberg Sørensen

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(11), 2213; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13112213 - 5 Jun 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3369

Abstract

The Arctic responds rapidly to climate change, and the melting of land ice is a major contributor to the observed present-day sea-level rise. The coastal regions of these ice-covered areas are showing the most dramatic changes in the form of widespread thinning. Therefore, [...] Read more.

The Arctic responds rapidly to climate change, and the melting of land ice is a major contributor to the observed present-day sea-level rise. The coastal regions of these ice-covered areas are showing the most dramatic changes in the form of widespread thinning. Therefore, it is vital to improve the monitoring of these areas to help us better understand their contribution to present-day sea levels. In this study, we derive ice-surface elevations from the swath processing of CryoSat-2 SARIn data, and evaluate the results in several Arctic regions. In contrast to the conventional retracking of radar data, swath processing greatly enhances spatial coverage as it uses the majority of information in the radar waveform to create a swath of elevation measurements. However, detailed validation procedures for swath-processed data are important to assess the performance of the method. Therefore, a range of validation activities were carried out to evaluate the performance of the swath processor in four different regions in the Arctic. We assessed accuracy by investigating both intramission crossover elevation differences, and comparisons to independent elevation data. The validation data consisted of both air- and spaceborne laser altimetry, and airborne X-band radar data. There were varying elevation biases between CryoSat-2 and the validation datasets. The best agreement was found for CryoSat-2 and ICESat-2 over the Helheim region in June 2019. To test the stability of the swath processor, we applied two different coherence thresholds. The number of data points was increased by approximately 25% when decreasing the coherence threshold in the processor from 0.8 to 0.6. However, depending on the region, this came with the cost of an increase of 33–65% in standard deviation of the intramission differences. Our study highlights the importance of selecting an appropriate coherence threshold for the swath processor. Coherence threshold should be chosen on a case-specific basis depending on the need for enhanced spatial coverage or accuracy. Full article

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Graphical abstract

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Full article ">Figure 1
Location and coverage of four datasets used in this study. (A) Airborne ALS data from April 2016 over Austfonna ice cap in Svalbard; (B) airborne GeoSAR X-band data from April 2014 over Petermann glacier in Greenland; (C) operation Ice Bridge ATM data from 2017 over Nioghalvfjerdsfjorden glacier; (D) ICESat-2 laser altimetry data for Helheim glacier obtained in June 2019. Gray-shaded data plotted as background on Greenland are 1 km resolution DEM from ArctiDEM [<a href="#B25-remotesensing-13-02213" class="html-bibr">25</a>]. Full article ">Figure 2
Coherence and power data from a CS2 track over Austfonna ice cap on 26 April 2016. (a,c) Northern part of the ice cap; (b,d) southern part of the ice cap. (a,b) Filtered coherence with threshold of 0.6 and 0.8 indicated by horizontal dashed lines; blue vertical box indicates area above the power threshold. (c,d) Power waveform, power threshold indicated by green line. Range bins for which the power was above the chosen limit are marked by shaded blue boxes. Full article ">Figure 3
Example of local phase unwrapping: gray line, original wrapped phase; red line, position of correctly unwrapped phase for range bins with coherence above 0.8. Full article ">Figure 4
Swath-processed ice-surface elevations over the Nioghalvfjerdsfjorden glacier in April 2018 computed using the two different coherence thresholds. (left) Elevations computed using a coherence limit of 0.8, revealing gaps in the data. (right) Ice-surface elevations computed using coherence limit of 0.6, which left fewer gaps in the data. Full article ">Figure 5
Results for Helheim area. (a,b) Intramission crossover elevation differences for coherence limits 0.8 and 0.6, respectively. (c,d) External-mission crossover analysis with ICESat-2 data for coherence limits 0.8 and 0.6, respectively. Corresponding histograms of elevation differences shown in inserts. Full article ">

21 pages, 8797 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fast and Fine Location of Total Lightning from Low Frequency Signals Based on Deep-Learning Encoding Features

by Jingxuan Wang, Yang Zhang, Yadan Tan, Zefang Chen, Dong Zheng, Yijun Zhang and Yanfeng Fan

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(11), 2212; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13112212 - 5 Jun 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3424

Abstract

Lightning location provides an important means for the study of lightning discharge process and thunderstorms activity. The fine positioning capability of total lightning based on low-frequency signals has been improved in many aspects, but most of them are based on post waveform processing, [...] Read more.

Lightning location provides an important means for the study of lightning discharge process and thunderstorms activity. The fine positioning capability of total lightning based on low-frequency signals has been improved in many aspects, but most of them are based on post waveform processing, and the positioning speed is slow. In this study, artificial intelligence technology is introduced for the first time to lightning positioning, based on low-frequency electric-field detection array (LFEDA). A new method based on deep-learning encoding features matching is also proposed, which provides a means for fast and fine location of total lightning. Compared to other LFEDA positioning methods, the new method greatly improves the matching efficiency, up to more than 50%, thereby considerably improving the positioning speed. Moreover, the new algorithm has greater fine-positioning and anti-interference abilities, and maintains high-quality positioning under low signal-to-noise ratio conditions. The positioning efficiency for return strokes of triggered lightning was 99.17%, and the standard deviation of the positioning accuracy in the X and Y directions was approximately 70 m. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing of Lightning and Its Applications in Atmospheric Electricity Studies)

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22 pages, 90116 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Random Forest-Based Data Fusion Method for Obtaining All-Weather Land Surface Temperature with High Spatial Resolution

by Shuo Xu, Jie Cheng and Quan Zhang

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(11), 2211; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13112211 - 5 Jun 2021

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 4431

Abstract

Land surface temperature (LST) is an important parameter for mirroring the water–heat exchange and balance on the Earth’s surface. Passive microwave (PMW) LST can make up for the lack of thermal infrared (TIR) LST caused by cloud contamination, but its resolution is relatively [...] Read more.

Land surface temperature (LST) is an important parameter for mirroring the water–heat exchange and balance on the Earth’s surface. Passive microwave (PMW) LST can make up for the lack of thermal infrared (TIR) LST caused by cloud contamination, but its resolution is relatively low. In this study, we developed a TIR and PWM LST fusion method on based the random forest (RF) machine learning algorithm to obtain the all-weather LST with high spatial resolution. Since LST is closely related to land cover (LC) types, terrain, vegetation conditions, moisture condition, and solar radiation, these variables were selected as candidate auxiliary variables to establish the best model to obtain the fusion results of mainland China during 2010. In general, the fusion LST had higher spatial integrity than the MODIS LST and higher accuracy than downscaled AMSR-E LST. Additionally, the magnitude of LST data in the fusion results was consistent with the general spatiotemporal variations of LST. Compared with in situ observations, the RMSE of clear-sky fused LST and cloudy-sky fused LST were 2.12–4.50 K and 3.45–4.89 K, respectively. Combining the RF method and the DINEOF method, a complete all-weather LST with a spatial resolution of 0.01° can be obtained. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fusion of High-Level Remote Sensing Products)

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15 pages, 5096 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sensitivity of C-Band SAR Polarimetric Variables to the Directionality of Surface Roughness Parameters

by Zohreh Alijani, John Lindsay, Melanie Chabot, Tracy Rowlandson and Aaron Berg

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(11), 2210; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13112210 - 5 Jun 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4203

Abstract

Surface roughness is an important factor in many soil moisture retrieval models. Therefore, any mischaracterization of surface roughness parameters (root mean square height, RMSH, and correlation length, ʅ) may result in unreliable predictions and soil moisture estimations. In many environments, but particularly in [...] Read more.

Surface roughness is an important factor in many soil moisture retrieval models. Therefore, any mischaracterization of surface roughness parameters (root mean square height, RMSH, and correlation length, ʅ) may result in unreliable predictions and soil moisture estimations. In many environments, but particularly in agricultural settings, surface roughness parameters may show different behaviours with respect to the orientation or azimuth. Consequently, the relationship between SAR polarimetric variables and surface roughness parameters may vary depending on measurement orientation. Generally, roughness obtained for many SAR-based studies is estimated using pin profilers that may, or may not, be collected with careful attention to orientation to the satellite look angle. In this study, we characterized surface roughness parameters in multi-azimuth mode using a terrestrial laser scanner (TLS). We characterized the surface roughness parameters in different orientations and then examined the sensitivity between polarimetric variables and surface roughness parameters; further, we compared these results to roughness profiles obtained using traditional pin profilers. The results showed that the polarimetric variables were more sensitive to the surface roughness parameters at higher incidence angles (θ). Moreover, when surface roughness measurements were conducted at the look angle of RADARSAT-2, more significant correlations were observed between polarimetric variables and surface roughness parameters. Our results also indicated that TLS can represent more reliable results than pin profiler in the measurement of the surface roughness parameters. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microtopography in Geomorphology, Forest Sciences and Biomass Categorization)

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The location of the Elora Research Station (ERS) in Ontario, Canada. The white polygons on the left image indicate the fields of study in May, and the black polygons indicate the November fields. Full article ">Figure 2
The flowchart of RADARSAT-2 image processing steps. Full article ">Figure 3
Variation of surface roughness characteristics across orientations for three representative fields (<a href="#remotesensing-13-02210-f003" class="html-fig">Figure 3</a>a–c). (a) A homogenous field with low variations in RMSH and correlation length in the whole field. (b) A moderately smooth field with some distinct variability across some orientations and more ridges and furrows than field <a href="#remotesensing-13-02210-f003" class="html-fig">Figure 3</a>a. (c) A rough field with the highest variability of RMSH and correlation length and more distinct ridges and furrows across orientations. Full article ">Figure 4
The comparison of mean RMSH measured by TLS and pin profiler at two different orientations. Full article ">Figure 5
Sensitivity of RADARSAT-2 parameters with respect to the orientation of mean RMSH at incidence angle 45° and 49°, with look angles 38.5° and 41.5°, respectively. (a) The sensitivity of linear backscatter coefficients (σ° HH and σ° VV) to the directionality of RMSH at incidence angles 45° and 49°. (b) The sensitivity of cross-polarized ratios (VV/VH, HH/HV, HV/VV), total power and pedestal height with respect to the RMSH orientation at both incidence angles. Full article ">

22 pages, 12670 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Occurrence of GPS Loss of Lock Based on a Swarm Half-Solar Cycle Dataset and Its Relation to the Background Ionosphere

by Michael Pezzopane, Alessio Pignalberi, Igino Coco, Giuseppe Consolini, Paola De Michelis, Fabio Giannattasio, Maria Federica Marcucci and Roberta Tozzi

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(11), 2209; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13112209 - 4 Jun 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3899

Abstract

This paper discusses the occurrence of Global Positioning System (GPS) loss of lock events obtained by considering total electron content (TEC) measurements carried out by the three satellites of the European Space Agency Swarm constellation from December 2013 to December 2020, which represents [...] Read more.

This paper discusses the occurrence of Global Positioning System (GPS) loss of lock events obtained by considering total electron content (TEC) measurements carried out by the three satellites of the European Space Agency Swarm constellation from December 2013 to December 2020, which represents the longest dataset ever used to perform such an analysis. After describing the approach used to classify a GPS loss of lock, the corresponding occurrence is analyzed as a function of latitude, local time, season, and solar activity to identify well-defined patterns. Moreover, the strict relation of the occurrence of the GPS loss of lock events with defined values of both the rate of change of electron density index (RODI) and the rate of change of TEC index (ROTI) is highlighted. The scope of this study is, on one hand, to characterize the background conditions of the ionosphere for such events and, on the other hand, to pave the way for their possible future modeling. The results shown, especially the fact that GPS loss of lock events tend to happen for well-defined values of both RODI and ROTI, are of utmost importance in the light of Space Weather effects mitigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Space Geodesy and Ionosphere)

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17 pages, 4161 KiB

Open AccessTechnical Note

CPS-Det: An Anchor-Free Based Rotation Detector for Ship Detection

by Yi Yang, Zongxu Pan, Yuxin Hu and Chibiao Ding

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(11), 2208; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13112208 - 4 Jun 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3034

Abstract

Ship detection is a significant and challenging task in remote sensing. At present, due to the faster speed and higher accuracy, the deep learning method has been widely applied in the field of ship detection. In ship detection, targets usually have the characteristics [...] Read more.

Ship detection is a significant and challenging task in remote sensing. At present, due to the faster speed and higher accuracy, the deep learning method has been widely applied in the field of ship detection. In ship detection, targets usually have the characteristics of arbitrary-oriented property and large aspect ratio. In order to take full advantage of these features to improve speed and accuracy on the base of deep learning methods, this article proposes an anchor-free method, which is referred as CPS-Det, on ship detection using rotatable bounding box. The main improvements of CPS-Det as well as the contributions of this article are as follows. First, an anchor-free based deep learning network was used to improve speed with fewer parameters. Second, an annotation method of oblique rectangular frame is proposed, which solves the problem that periodic angle and bounded coordinates in conjunction with the regression calculation can lead to the problem of loss anomalies. For the annotation scheme proposed in this paper, a scheme for calculating Angle Loss is proposed, which makes the loss function of angle near the boundary value more accurate and greatly improves the accuracy of angle prediction. Third, the centerness calculation of feature points is optimized in this article so that the center weight distribution of each point is suitable for the rotation detection. Finally, a scheme combining centerness and positive sample screening is proposed and its effectiveness in ship detection is proved. Experiments on remote sensing public dataset HRSC2016 show the effectiveness of our approach. Full article

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17 pages, 13087 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Aircraft Detection in High Spatial Resolution Remote Sensing Images Combining Multi-Angle Features Driven and Majority Voting CNN

by Fengcheng Ji, Dongping Ming, Beichen Zeng, Jiawei Yu, Yuanzhao Qing, Tongyao Du and Xinyi Zhang

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(11), 2207; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13112207 - 4 Jun 2021

Cited by 26 | Viewed by 4458

Abstract

Aircraft is a means of transportation and weaponry, which is crucial for civil and military fields to detect from remote sensing images. However, detecting aircraft effectively is still a problem due to the diversity of the pose, size, and position of the aircraft [...] Read more.

Aircraft is a means of transportation and weaponry, which is crucial for civil and military fields to detect from remote sensing images. However, detecting aircraft effectively is still a problem due to the diversity of the pose, size, and position of the aircraft and the variety of objects in the image. At present, the target detection methods based on convolutional neural networks (CNNs) lack the sufficient extraction of remote sensing image information and the post-processing of detection results, which results in a high missed detection rate and false alarm rate when facing complex and dense targets. Aiming at the above questions, we proposed a target detection model based on Faster R-CNN, which combines multi-angle features driven and majority voting strategy. Specifically, we designed a multi-angle transformation module to transform the input image to realize the multi-angle feature extraction of the targets in the image. In addition, we added a majority voting mechanism at the end of the model to deal with the results of the multi-angle feature extraction. The average precision (AP) of this method reaches 94.82% and 95.25% on the public and private datasets, respectively, which are 6.81% and 8.98% higher than that of the Faster R-CNN. The experimental results show that the method can detect aircraft effectively, obtaining better performance than mature target detection networks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Computational Intelligence and Advanced Learning Techniques in Remote Sensing)

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22 pages, 46802 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Autocorrelation of Martian Surface Temperature and Its Spatio-Temporal Relationships with Near-Surface Environmental Factors across China’s Tianwen-1 Landing Zone

by Yaowen Luo, Jianguo Yan, Fei Li and Bo Li

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(11), 2206; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13112206 - 4 Jun 2021

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 3662

Abstract

Variations in the Martian surface temperature indicate patterns of surface energy exchange. The Martian surface temperature at a location is similar to those in adjacent locations; but, an understanding of temperature clusters in multiple locations will deepen our knowledge of planetary surface processes [...] Read more.

Variations in the Martian surface temperature indicate patterns of surface energy exchange. The Martian surface temperature at a location is similar to those in adjacent locations; but, an understanding of temperature clusters in multiple locations will deepen our knowledge of planetary surface processes overall. The spatial coherence of the Martian surface temperature (ST) at different locations, the spatio-temporal variations in temperature clusters, and the relationships between ST and near-surface environmental factors, however, are not well understood. To fill this gap, we studied an area to the south of Utopia Planitia, the landing zone for the Tianwen-1 Mars Exploration mission. The spatial aggregation of three Martian ST indicators (STIs), including sol average temperature (SAT), sol temperature range (STR), and sol-to-sol temperature change (STC), were quantitatively evaluated using clustering analysis at the global and local scale. In addition, we also detected the spatio-temporal variations in relations between the STIs and seven potential driving factors, including thermal inertia, albedo, dust, elevation, slope, and zonal and meridional winds, across the study area during 81 to 111 sols in Martian years 29–32, based on a geographically and temporally weighted regression model (GTWR). We found that the SAT, STR, and STC were not randomly distributed over space but exhibited signs of significant spatial aggregation. Thermal inertia and dust made the greatest contribution to the fluctuation in STIs over time. The local surface temperature was likely affected by the slope, wind, and local circulation, especially in the area with a large slope and low thermal inertia. In addition, the sheltering effects of the mountains at the edge of the basin likely contributed to the spatial difference in SAT and STR. These results are a reminder that the spatio-temporal variation in the local driving factors associated with Martian surface temperature cannot be neglected. Our research contributes to the understanding of the surface environment that might compromise the survival and operations of the Tianwen-1 lander on the Martian surface. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cartography of the Solar System: Remote Sensing beyond Earth)

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21 pages, 41697 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mapping Outburst Floods Using a Collaborative Learning Method Based on Temporally Dense Optical and SAR Data: A Case Study with the Baige Landslide Dam on the Jinsha River, Tibet

by Zhongkang Yang, Jinbing Wei, Jianhui Deng, Yunjian Gao, Siyuan Zhao and Zhiliang He

Remote Sens. 2021, 13(11), 2205; https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13112205 - 4 Jun 2021

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3811

Abstract

Outburst floods resulting from giant landslide dams can cause devastating damage to hundreds or thousands of kilometres of a river. Accurate and timely delineation of flood inundated areas is essential for disaster assessment and mitigation. There have been significant advances in flood mapping [...] Read more.

Outburst floods resulting from giant landslide dams can cause devastating damage to hundreds or thousands of kilometres of a river. Accurate and timely delineation of flood inundated areas is essential for disaster assessment and mitigation. There have been significant advances in flood mapping using remote sensing images in recent years, but little attention has been devoted to outburst flood mapping. The short-duration nature of these events and observation constraints from cloud cover have significantly challenged outburst flood mapping. This study used the outburst flood of the Baige landslide dam on the Jinsha River on 3 November 2018 as an example to propose a new flood mapping method that combines optical images from Sentinel-2, synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images from Sentinel-1 and a Digital Elevation Model (DEM). First, in the cloud-free region, a comparison of four spectral indexes calculated from time series of Sentinel-2 images indicated that the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) with the threshold of 0.15 provided the best separation flooded area. Subsequently, in the cloud-covered region, an analysis of dual-polarization RGB false color composites images and backscattering coefficient differences of Sentinel-1 SAR data were found an apparent response to ground roughness’s changes caused by the flood. We carried out the flood range prediction model based on the random forest algorithm. Training samples consisted of 13 feature vectors obtained from the Hue-Saturation-Value color space, backscattering coefficient differences/ratio, DEM data, and a label set from the flood range prepared from Sentinel-2 images. Finally, a field investigation and confusion matrix tested the prediction accuracy of the end-of-flood map. The overall accuracy and Kappa coefficient were 92.3%, 0.89 respectively. The full extent of the outburst floods was successfully obtained within five days of its occurrence. The multi-source data merging framework and the massive sample preparation method with SAR images proposed in this paper, provide a practical demonstration for similar machine learning applications using remote sensing. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Data Fusion for Remote Sensing of Fires and Floods in the Sentinels Era)

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Remote Sens., Volume 13, Issue 11 (June-1 2021) – 213 articles

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