Abstract
The main claim of this chapter is that, in order to bridge the gap between what users need and what is given to them as a solution to those needs, the concept of design has to be substantially challenged and its role in IT development reformulated. To this aim, we submit that an old mythology of design, which is based on the separation between conceptual design and situated use, and consequently on the modeling activity that entails and enacts this separation, should be abandoned in favor of a new mythology. We advocate this new mythology to be grounded on both the notion of performativity, from the conceptual perspective, and on the notion of bricoleur from the more practical perspective. Reviewing and discussing the main tenets of this mythology has brought us to introducing a lean method for the development of socially embedded technologies and to the preliminary proposal of a “logic of bricolage” that specific environments should enact to empower end users in the process of continuous development of their own digital tools. The proposed layered conceptual architecture, as well as the notions that support its conception, have still to prove their practical value in a reasonable range of settings, especially where legacy systems do exist and cannot be “obliterated”. However our hope is that the EUSSET forum will host many similar discourses and give them some sort of legitimacy to inform future common initiatives of research, education, and IT professional practice in the near future.
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Notes
- 1.
- 2.
This spectrum of utility evaluation seems to oscillate between the different stances of the philosophers who tried first to understand how to gauge usefulness and satisfaction, Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, respectively.
- 3.
Here and in the following, the word myth is not opposed to any truth fact, but it is rather used as synonym of “archetypical story” to indicate one possible stance, among many other ones as much as legitimate and reasonable. On the other hand, we keep using the term mythology for its powerful and evocative connotation, although probably the most indicated term would be “metanarrative,” in the sense after Lyotard (1986), i.e., set of narratives that emphasize particular aspects of the practice of IT development and that, in doing so, do not drive practice in any strong sense but rather tell it, legitimate it, and “shape it by helping each participant construct and frame their account of their practice” (Harris and Henderson 1999, p. 89).
- 4.
Although the interested reader can refer to the original paper, we here summarize the main high-level recommendations contained in the mythology proposed by Harris and Henderson (1999): that we should i) honor every particularity, even those that do not fit the regularities imposed by the organizational rules; ii) honor accommodation, i.e., the “ad hoc elaboration of rules in use”; and iii) honor change, which is an intrinsic and unavoidable feature of a real world system.
- 5.
We will certainly not try to prove this conjecture, as we could never get over the causality fallacy that such a proof would entail (i.e., post hoc, propter hoc).
- 6.
For instance, Paley (2007) makes the point that many researches that declare a focus in complex systems do actually refer to the open systems thinking, which between the 1960s and the 1980s was aimed at replacing the Tayloristic organization-as-machine metaphor with the metaphor of organization-as-organism; more curtly, Maguire and McKelvey (1999) assert that most of the references to the complexity theory in the IT-oriented literature are not dissimilar from “mere retellings of old tales, [which use] complexity terminology tacked on retrospectively, gratuitously, and, in many cases, quite awkwardly.”
- 7.
Moreover, Ivan Illich was among the first thinkers to denote a similar phenomenon as “principle of (paradoxically) counterproductivity”: once most practices are institutionalized and engineered, they backfire on some of the stakeholders (Illich 1977).
- 8.
It should be noted though that “a performative perspective does not delete the idea of representation, but rather views it as a specific aspect of performativity” (Jensen 2005), in that it focuses on the activity of representing, planning, and modeling rather than on the material outcome of those practices.
- 9.
Here and elsewhere, we use the term “metaphor“ in the Nietzschean sense, as something that is used to impose order and intelligibility on a world that we cannot access directly.
- 10.
The fil rouge binds together unsuspected associates, like Pickering and Latour. One thing that unites these thinkers, for example, is that they are both “happy enough” to speak of material agency in nature without imputing any intentionality to the word “agency” (Pickering 1995, p. 6).
- 11.
Yet, we agree with Jensen (2002) when he points out that “the performative turn is a way to refuse the choice between the modern and the post-modern. The modern is about order purity. The post modern is a celebration of fragments and disorder. The performative turn is a series of claims and sensitivities that try to reach a fractional space in between. Something that is beyond the mono-dimensionality of modernity and beyond the free-floating multi-dimensionality of the post-modern. In this sense it has much in common with the parts of the Actor Network Theory tradition that claim to be non-modern.”
- 12.
To support the legitimacy of the performative turn, we here recall that our ancestors (i.e., Latin, Greek, and Old English) used the words “res,” “pragma,” and “thing” (respectively) in order to denote an affair, a deed, a business, or an assembly (Telier 2011, p. 1), as well as the matters that were discussed and deliberated in such occasions and meetings. In other words, subject and object did not need to be disentangled on such occasions.
- 13.
It is nevertheless worthy of note that the meaning of performance as “performing a play” or “playing a drama” is much later than the more general meaning of “carrying out a promise” or “carrying in effect something” that dates from the sixteenth century.
- 14.
We are referring to the famous passage in The Genealogy of Morals where Nietzsche pointed out that “there is no ‘being’ behind doing, acting, becoming: ‘the doer’ is merely a fiction added to the ‘doing’. Doing is all” (original: es giebt kein ‘Sein’ hinter dem Thun, Wirken, Werden; ‘der Thaeter’ ist zum Thun bloss hinzugedichtet, − das Thun ist Alles).
- 15.
Equipment can be seen as a term which denotes those things, or artifacts, that the Dasein encounters in fluent use, entangled and experienced in performance, when they are ready- to- hand (Zuhandenheit).
- 16.
This was honestly admitted by Jensen (2008), who has nevertheless advocated a better consideration of these ideas within those traditions. However, two years later, Bratteteig et al. (2010, p. 31) have conversely recognized that “the performative turn in post-structuralism is perhaps under-articulated in design research.”
- 17.
URL: http://www.thinkinnovation.org/eusset-has-just-engineered-the-manifesto-of-situated-computing/ (accessed 03-Sept-2014). Archived at WebCite on 03-Sept-2014 [http://www.webcitation.org/6SJclKI3B]
- 18.
This could have also laid the concept of situatedness open to some representationalist drifts: cf., e.g., the connotations acquired by the term “context,” among which that of “container-like” (Suchman 2006, p. 19), in IT-related discourses about “context-aware systems.”
- 19.
Including planning itself or “calling out a plan as a self-standing artifact”: cf., respectively, p. 17 and 21
- 20.
In Human-Machine Reconfigurations, Suchman speaks of situatedness only once and only to challenge the meaning intended for such term by Rodney Brooks, the MIT engineer that questioned symbolic representational approaches in the field of robotics, as she found such meaning “evacuated of sociality.”
- 21.
Including people, like Lave and Wenger (1991), who lament the vagueness of the definition itself of situatedness
- 22.
Ciborra (2006) writes: “‘Situated’ is the translation of the German ‘befindlich’; situatedness is ‘befindlichkeit’. [The former term] not only refers to the circumstances one finds himself or herself in, but also to his or her ‘inner situation’, disposition, mood, affectedness and emotion.”
- 23.
Of course someone has still to develop the technological artifact, and someone else pays the bills.
- 24.
Thomas Erickson, 2000, allegedly written upon reading a commentary for a special issue of CSCW Journal on Theory
- 25.
That is, as “an autonomic and contingent occurrence with its own conditions and its own time-structure, [in respect to which] the meaning of the past for the present is not fixed but radically ambiguous” (Dirksmeier and Helbrecht 2008), i.e., inextricably intertwined with the given situation
- 26.
cf. the principle of encapsulation, which is defined by Grady Booch as “the process of compartmentalizing the elements of an abstraction”
- 27.
This passage is strongly influenced by the reading of Nietzsche by Derrida in “Structure, Sign, and Play,” where the Nietzschean perspective is related to “the joyous affirmation of the play of the world and of the innocence of becoming, the affirmation of a world of signs without fault, without truth, and without origin which is offered to an active interpretation.” Bricolage itself is a concept that urges us considering system development as a game-related social undertaking.
- 28.
Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, 4.116
- 29.
This expression is taken from Illich. A convivial tool is defined as “that which gives each person who uses it the greatest opportunity to enrich the environment with the fruits of his or her labour” (Illich 1973).
- 30.
Beath and Orlikowski (1994) show how most of the user-centered development methodologies that put a strong emphasis on user involvement (they make the case of information engineering) actually relegate users to playing a relatively passive role during development and, in virtue of this, ask for a more clear responsibility for project outcomes. We stress here the need to give full control, rather than only responsibility, to the community of users that will host the information system.
- 31.
The COmputer-based Mechanisms of Interaction in Cooperative work project was an EC-ESPRIT-funded basic research project No. 6225, from 1992 to 1995.
- 32.
We prefer the expression “layout structure” instead of “information structure” (or “data structure”), which would perhaps be the traditional mode to indicate those structures, as the latter term would have given the nod to the high-level, conceptual element those structures could be referred to by a human user. Conversely, we mean to hint at the material, spatial arrangement of meaningful signs that “act at the surface” in promoting cognitive processes of sense making and interpretation.
- 33.
We recall here the requirement that bricoleurs already know the available pieces (see Section 3).
- 34.
We are aware that buyers, top management executives, middle management officers, more or less official and institutionalized representatives of business units, and their employees have always been part and parcel of the development process of a corporate information system. However, articulating the reconfiguration of the larger actor network that encompasses all these levels of involvement and accountability would be out of the chapter’s scope.
- 35.
Cabitza and Simone (2012c) show that this divide has historical roots, and hence it is contingent. In particular, the “divide” took place approximately in the second half of the 1950s when the computer, which had been thus far intended only as a mathematical instrument for which each of its users had to write his/her own code to be executed when it was his/her turn, became a full-fledged time-sharing equipment and established itself as a business machine or better yet an electronic data-processing machine (O’Neill 1992; Campbell-Kelly and Aspray 2004).
- 36.
And this is not completely by chance: mee’yootah vs. ’mee-tah.
- 37.
A list of this kind of questions can be found in Cabitza et al. (2014b).
- 38.
If the worst occurs, e.g., if power goes down, the overall socio-technical system is made more resilient simply by printing out some layout structures on paper and having the users work as usual, just without the computational augmentation of those structures.
- 39.
A short literature review of this concept can be found in (Cabitza and Simone 2013b).
- 40.
To make a very long story short, legacy systems that automated data structures can – and should – be preserved and wrapped as new local nodes of the network described in Section 6.2; but what destiny to give to those legacy systems that once “automated” procedures and workflows…?
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Cabitza, F., Simone, C. (2015). Building Socially Embedded Technologies: Implications About Design. In: Wulf, V., Schmidt, K., Randall, D. (eds) Designing Socially Embedded Technologies in the Real-World. Computer Supported Cooperative Work. Springer, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-6720-4_11
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