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Bid'ah

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For other uses, see Bida (disambiguation).
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In Islam, bidʿah (Arabic: بدعة [ˈbɪdʕæ], lit. 'innovation') refers to innovation in religious matters.[1] Linguistically, the term means "innovation, novelty, heretical doctrine, heresy".[2] Despite its common use in Muslim texts, the term is not found in the Qur'an.

A hadith often cited as evidence of Islam's opposition to innovation in religion states: "Avoid novelties for every novelty is an innovation and every innovation is an error."[3] The term has been said (by Mehram Kamrava) to have acquired "a highly negative, even dreaded connotation" over time in the Islamic world, and the message of those opposing bidʻah to have resonated with the masses of Muslims.[4]

Interpretations of the concept have led to disagreements within the Muslim community -- one example being the celebration of Muhammad's birthday (mawlid) which is widely practiced in some parts of the Muslim world, while being emphatically condemned as bidʻah by many influential Sunni clerics.[5] Issues involved in the concept of bidʻah in Islam include whether there can be both good and bad bidʻah or only bad, whether generally accepted definitions of bidʻah change over time (practices such as writing down hadith[6] and applying the science of medicine to disease rather than accepting death from it as the will of God, having once been considered bidʻah).[7][8]

In classical Arabic literature (Arabic: أدب, romanized: adab), it has been used as a form of praise for outstanding compositions of prose and poetry.[9]

History

In the third century of Islam, the genre of bid'a literature began to develop in the Islamic world and has continued to the present time (with the exception of a lull "between the 14th and 20th centuries CE").[10]

According to Malise Ruthven, after the 10th century when the doctrine that the gates of Ijtihad had closed gradually arose, and legal decisions began to follow the process of taqlid (imitation of legal precedents), "new attempts at ijtihad" (creative reasoning) "came to be condemned as bidah".[11] By the time of the Islamic Middle Ages, according to Muhammad F. Sayeed, "allegation of 'bidah' became a formidable weapon against progress".[12]

Technologies and items once denounced as bidʻah and in violation of the "Sunna of the Prophet and his companions" include "tables, sieves, coffee, tobacco, the printing press, artillery, the telephone, the telegraph, and more recently, voting rights for women".[13]

Traditional view

Religious and non-religious types

Scholars generally have divided bidʻah into two types:[14][page needed][need quotation to verify]

  1. Good worldly innovations such as using technology to propagate the faith of Islam.[citation needed]
  2. Innovations that are purely evil—these are forbidden under Islamic law. [15][non-primary source needed] or, in modern times, the discovery and synthesis of new intoxicants.[16]

In religious matters

Definitions

Some definitions include

  • "any modification of accepted religious belief or practice." (Mehram Kamrava)[13]
  • In early Islamic history, bidʻah referred primarily to heterodox doctrines. In Islamic law, when used without qualification, bidʻah denotes any newly invented matter that is without precedent and is in opposition to the Qur'an and Sunnah. (Jamaluddin ibn al-Manzur al-Masri)[17]
  • any invented way aimed at worshipping or drawing closer to Allah that is
    • not referred to specifically in Sharia, and
    • for which there is no evidence (daleel) in the Quran or Sunnah, and
    • which was not known at the time of Muhammad and his Companions. (Muhammed Salih Al-Munajjid)[18]

Some (Mohammed F. Sayeed,[12] Muzammil H. Siddiqi, President of the Fiqh Council of North America),[19] have divided bidʻah into lawful/good (bidʻah hasanah) also praiseworthy (maḥmūdah),[20] and unlawful innovations (bidʻah sayyiah) [21] also blameworthy (madhmūmah).[20] The first having "some basis (asl) in the Shari`ah to make it acceptable", the second do not and are prohibited.[19]

According to Al-Shafi'i (founder of the Shafi'i school of Sunni jurisprudence), lawful/good (bidʻah hasanah), are in harmony with the Qur’an, Sunnah, traceable tradition (Athar) and the consensus (Ijma`) of Muslims, and unlawful innovations (bidʻah sayyiah) are not.[19] Others (Al-`Izz ibn `Abdus-Salam) have divided Bid'ah into the five "decisions" of fiqh (al-aḥkām al-khamsa) of obligatory, recommended, allowed, condemned, forbidden.[19] Examples of the five decisions on bid'ah are:

  1. among bidʻahs required of the Muslim community (farḍ kifāyah) are the study of Arabic grammar and philology as tools for the proper understanding of the Qurʾān, evaluation of Hadith (traditions or sayings of the Prophet Muhammad) to determine their validity, the refutation of heretics, and the codification of law;[20][13]
  2. strictly forbidden (muḥarramah) are bidʿahs that undermine the principles of orthodoxy and thus constitute unbelief (kufr);[20][13]
  3. recommended (mandūb) is the founding of schools and religious houses;[20][13]
  4. disapproved (makrūh) are the ornamentation of mosques and the decoration of the Qurʾān;[20][13] and finally
  5. the law is indifferent (mubāḥah) to the bidʿahs of fine clothing and good food.[20][13]

A more strict view was taken by Malik ibn Anas who stated that those who maintain that some innovations in religion can be good are saying Muhammad was in error in his Farewell Sermon when he said: "This day have I perfected your religion for you and completed My favor unto you, and have chosen for you Al-Islam as religion." [22][19] Since God's Messenger cannot be in error on religious matters, innovation cannot be good.

The strict Ḥanbalī school of fiqh and the Wahhābi movement reject bidʻah "completely, arguing that the duty of a Muslim was to follow the example set by the Prophet (Sunnah) and not try to improve on it", according to Britannica.[20]

In comparing bidʻah to the Christian concept of heresy, Bernard Lewis says, "the gravamen of a charge of [innovation] against a doctrine was not, primarily, that it was false but that it was new -- a breach of custom and tradition, respect for which is reinforced by the belief in the finality and perfection of the Muslim revelation." Bidah differed from heresy in that heresy was a theological offense but bidʻah more a break with social mores.[23][24]

Other judgements by scholars on bidʻah include:

Punishment

Bernard Lewis writes that accusations of apostasy because of bidʻah were common in early and classical Islam, but practitioners of bidʻah were usually subject to something like quarantine or admonition. Only when their innovation "was extreme, persistent, and aggressive" were they "ruthlessly extirpated".[30]

Hadith of early Muslims

Against bidʻah

A large number sayings by companions of Muhammad or offspring of companions (taba'een) condemn religious innovation in some way.

Ali ibn Abi Talib, of the Rashidun (rightly guided Caliphs), said; "He who innovates or gives protection to an innovator, there is a curse of Allah and that of His angels and that of the whole humanity upon him."[31][32][non-primary source needed] Abdullah ibn Umar said: "Every innovation is misguidance, even if the people see it as something good."[33][non-primary source needed]

Abd Allah ibn Abbas, a companion of Muhammad and early Islamic scholar also said: "Indeed the most detestable of things to Allah are the innovations."[34][non-primary source needed] Sufyan al-Thawri, a tabi'i Islamic scholar, Hafiz and jurist, mentions: "Innovation is more beloved to Iblees than sin, since a sin may be repented for but innovation is not repented for."[35][non-primary source needed] He also said, "Whoever listens to an innovator has left the protection of Allāh and is entrusted with the innovation."[36][non-primary source needed]

A person once sent salaam to Abdullah ibn Umar who replied: "I do not accept his salaam, as this person has innovated by becoming Qadariyah (A sect which does not believe in destiny.")[37][non-primary source needed]

Al-Fudayl ibn 'Iyad is reputed to have said: "I met the best of people, all of them people of the Sunnah, and they used to forbid from accompanying the people of innovation."[38][39][non-primary source needed] Hasan al-Basri mentions: "Do not sit with the people of innovation and desires, nor argue with them, nor listen to them".[40] Ibraaheem ibn Maysarah mentions: "Whoever honours an innovator has aided in the destruction of Islam."[41][non-primary source needed]

Al-Hasan ibn 'Ali al-Barbahari mentions: "The innovators are like scorpions. They bury their heads and bodies in the sand and leave their tails out. When they get the chance they sting; the same with the innovators who conceal themselves amongst the people, when they are able, they do what they desire."[42][non-primary source needed] Abu Haatim said: "A sign of the people of innovation is their battling against the people of Narrations."[43][non-primary source needed] Abu Uthman al-Sabuni said: "The signs of the people of innovation are clear and obvious. The most apparent of their signs is their severe enmity for those who carry the reports of the Prophet."[44][non-primary source needed]

Ahmad Sirhindi has explained about Bid'ah in his letter, that according to his view, Bid'ah are the opposite of Sunnah or Hadith traditions of Muhammad.[45]

Assuming good and bad bidʻah

Various scholars have made statements which assume a difference between good and bad bidʻah, such as:

Jabir ibn Abd Allah narrated: "The Messenger of Allah ... said: 'Whoever starts a good thing and is followed by others, will have his own reward and a reward equal to that of those who follow him, without it detracting from their reward in any way. Whoever starts a bad thing and is followed by others, will bear the burden of his own sin and a burden equal to that of those who follow him, without it detracting from their burden in any way.'" (al-Tirmidhi, no. 2675, sahih hasan hadith)[46][18]

Jabir ibn Abd Allah said that Muhammad said that those who introduced a good precedent in Islam which others followed (by people) would be rewarded as would those who followed it, and someone who introduced a bad precedent which others followed would be punished, as would the followers.[47][48][49]

Anas ibn Malik said "I heard the Prophet say: 'My nation will not unite on misguidance, so if you see them differing, follow the great majority.'" Note: The grade of the Hadith is da'eef (Arabic: ضعيف, lit. 'weak')[50][non-primary source needed]

Abu Hurairah said that Muhammad said, "Whoever prayed at night the whole month of Ramadan out of sincere Faith and hoping for a reward from Allah, then all his previous sins will be forgiven." After Muhammad's death the people continued observing that (i.e. Nawafil offered individually, not in congregation), and it remained as it was during the Caliphate of Abu Bakr and in the early days of Umar ibn Al-Khattab's Caliphate. During Ramadan upon seeing people praying in different groups, Umar ordered Ubayy ibn Ka'b to lead the people in congregational prayer. On this Umar said: 'What an excellent Bida (i.e. innovation in religion at that time from an earlier time) this is; but the prayer which they do not perform, but sleep at its time is better than the one they are offering.'[51][52][53][54]

Salman al-Farsi said that when Muhammad was asked, by some of the companions, about the permissibility and prohibition of certain items, he said "Halal is that which Allah has made Halal in His book, Haram is that which Allah has made Haram in His book and about which he has remained silent is all forgiven."[55][non-primary source needed]

Abu Hurairah said that at the time of the Fajr prayer Muhammad asked Bilal ibn al-Harith, "Tell me of the best deed you did after embracing Islam, for I heard your footsteps in front of me in Paradise." Bilal replied, "I did not do anything worth mentioning except that whenever I performed ablution during the day or night, I prayed after that ablution as much as was written for me."[56] Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani says in Fath al-Bari that "the hadith shows it is permissible to use personal reasoning (ijtihad) in choosing times for acts of worship, for Bilal reached the conclusion he mentioned by his own inference and the Prophet (Allah bless him and give him peace) confirmed him therein."[57] Similar to this, Khubayb ibn Adiy asked to pray two rak’as before being executed by idolators in Mecca, and was hence the first to establish the sunna of two rak'as for those who are steadfast in going to their death.[57][58]

Rifaa ibn Rafi narrated: When we were praying behind the Prophet and he raised his head from bowing and said, "Allah hears whoever praises Him," a man behind him said, "Our Lord, Yours is the praise, abundantly, wholesomely, and blessedly."When he rose to leave, the Prophet asked who said it, and when the man replied that it was he, the Prophet said, "I saw thirty-odd angel each striving to be the one to write it."[59] Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani comments in Fath al-Bari that the hadith "indicates the permissibility of initiation new expression of dhikr in the prayer other than the ones related through hadith texts (even though this is still reported in the hadiths), as long as they do not contradict those conveyed by the hadith. It is clear that this is since the above were a mere enhancement and addendum to the know, sunna dhikr."[57][non-primary source needed]

Imam Shafi'i gave the following advice, "An innovation which contradicts the Qurʼan, Sunnah, an Athar or Ijma is a heretical bid'a: if however something new is introduced which is not evil in itself and does not contradict the above mentioned authorities of religious life, then it is a praiseworthy, unobjectional bid'a." This can infer worldly bid'a or technology.[51][60][61][62][63]

In Shi'a Islam

According to Shi'a Islam the definition of bidʻah is anything that is introduced to Islam as either being fard (Arabic: فرض, lit. 'mandatory'), mustahabb (Arabic: مستحب, lit. 'recommended'), mubah (Arabic: مباح, lit. 'permissible'), makruh (Arabic: مكروه, lit. 'reprehensible') or haram (Arabic: حرام, lit. 'forbidden') that contradicts the Qurʼan or hadith. Any new good practice introduced that does not contradict the Qurʼan or hadith is permissible. However, it is not permissible to say that a new good practice (that does not contradict the Qurʼan or hadith) is obligatory, highly recommended or "sunnah" proper. Hence, the Shiʻa stance mirrors the body of Sunni scholars who proffer the idea of "bidʻah hasana" (Arabic: بدعة حسنة). As a general rule in Shiʻa jurisprudence, anything is permissible except whatever is prohibited through divine revelation (i.e. the Qurʼan or hadith).[64]

Mohammad Baqir Majlisi in the definition of heresy says:

What is presented after the Prophet as a religious belief or practice, while no specific statement has been made about it and it is not considered as an example of a general rule or that practice is explicitly forbidden.

This definition means that innovation must be done in the name of religion to be considered heresy.

Disputes

Despite the general understanding of standing scholarly disagreements (Arabic: اختلاف, romanized: ikhtilaf), the notion of lawful innovation is a polarizing issue in the Islamic world. A practical example of this is the debate over the permissibility of the mawlid (Arabic: مولد, lit. 'birth') of the prophet Muhammad. All scholars agree that such celebrations did not exist in the early period of Islamic history, and yet mawlid commemorations are a common element in Muslim societies around the world. Even so, Sunni scholars are divided between emphatic unconditional condemnation[5] and conditional acceptance[65] of the celebration with the former insisting it is a bidʻah and thus automatically unlawful, while the latter argues it nonetheless is contextually permissible.

British historian Sadakat Kadri has noted the change over time in what is considered bidʻah.

Hadith were not written down until the 9th century, at least in part because "traditionists such as Ibn Hanbal considered human literature to be an unholy innovation."[6] This interpretation changed even for very conservative jurists such as Ibn Taymiyyah who wrote dozens of books. Ibn Taymiyyah however considered mathematics, a bidah, a false form of knowledge that "does not bring perfection to the human soul, nor save man from castigation of God, nor lead him to a happy life", and forbade its use in determining the beginning of lunar months.[66] Very conservative Wahhabis allow the broadcast of television but Indian Deobandi forbid their followers from watching it,[67] but make use of the more recent invention the internet to issue fatwas.[67]

Traditionally who died of plague and who did not was explained as simply the will of God based on al-Bukhari's al-Sahih hadith,[7][68] but studying the progress of the Black Death (bubonic plague) in the 14th century, scholar Ibn al-Khatib noted those who died had the plague transmitted to them from "garments, vessels, ear-rings; ... persons ... by infection of a healthy sea-port by an arrival from an infected land" whereas isolated individuals were immune.[7] In the Muqaddimah, Ibn Khaldun defends the science of medicine from suggestions that it is an innovation going against the Sunna. "The medicine mentioned in religious tradition ... is in no way part of the divine revelation." It was simply part of "Arab custom and happened to be mentioned in connection with the circumstances of the Prophet, like other things that were customary in his generation." But was "not mentioned in order to imply that [it] is stipulated by the religious law."[8]

In his Book of Knowledge Al-Ghazali observed that many phenomena once thought bidʻah had come to be though legally unobjectionable.

[A]mong the accepted practices of our time are decorating and furnishing the mosques, and expending great sums of money on their ornate construction and fine rugs which were then considered innovations. These were introduced by the pilgrims, since the early Muslims seldom placed anything on the ground during prayer. Similarly disputation and debate are among the most honoured disciples of the day and are numbered among the best meritorious works (qarubat): nevertheless they were among the taboos at the time of the Companions. The same is true of the chanting (talhiri) of the Quran and the call for prayer, going to excess in matters of cleanliness and being over fastidious in matters of ceremonial purity, ruling clothes unclean on petty and far-fetched grounds, and, at the same time, being lax in ruling foods lawful and unlawful as well as many other like things.[69]

He quoted Hudhayfah ibn al-Yaman approvingly: "Strange as it may seem, accepted practices of today are the taboos of a day gone by. ... And the taboos of today are the accepted practices of a day yet to come."[69]

Modern discourse

The criterion that qualifies a particular action as a bid'ah in the religion is a debate amongst Sunni scholars. Scholars affiliated to the Salafi sects argue for an exclusive, literal definition that entails anything not specifically performed or confirmed by Muhammad.[70]

Practitioners of Sufism, in contrast, argue for an inclusive, holistic definition. Umar Faruq Abd-Allah writes:

[B]id’a could take on various shades of meaning. When used without qualifying adjectives, it tended to be condemnatory, as, for example, in the statement, "bid'a must be avoided" Nevertheless, bid'a was not always something bad. In certain contexts, especially when qualified by adjectives, bid'a could cover a wide range of meanings from what was praiseworthy to what was completely wrong, as, for example, in the caliph ‘Umar's statement below, "what an excellent bid'a is this!"

— Umar Faruq Abd-Allah, Innovation and Creativity in Islam[71]

A contemporary example of what some Muslims believe is overly harsh interpretation of bid'ah is given by Murad Hoffman who was accused of bidah at Salah prayers in Riyadh Saudi Arabia after he shook hands with other Muslims in the mosque, and said to them "Taqabbala Allahu (May Allah accept your prayer)".[12]

See also

References

  1. ^ A.C. Brown, Jonathan (2009). Hadith: Muhammad's Legacy in the Medieval and Modern World (Foundations of Islam). Oneworld Publications. p. 277. ISBN 978-1851686636.
  2. ^ Wehr, Hans (1994). Arabic-English Dictionary. Spoken Language Services, Inc. p. 57.
  3. ^ A hadith collected by Abu Dawud al-Sijistani attributed to Muhammad. Kamrava, Mehram (2011). "1. Contextualizing Innovation in Islam". In Kamrava, Mehram (ed.). Innovation in Islam : Traditions and Contributions. University of California Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-520-26695-7. Retrieved 28 November 2024.
  4. ^ Kamrava, Mehram (2011). "1. Contextualizing Innovation in Islam". In Kamrava, Mehram (ed.). Innovation in Islam : Traditions and Contributions. University of California Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-520-26695-7. Retrieved 28 November 2024. why ... have the opponents of innovation found their message so resonant with the Muslim masses at large?
  5. ^ a b Bin Baz, Abd al-Aziz. "Warning Against Bidʻahs: Ruling on Celebrating the Prophet's Mawlid and Other Events". Fatawa Bin Baz. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 30 September 2011.
  6. ^ a b Kadri, Heaven on Earth, 2012: p.187
  7. ^ a b c Kadri, Heaven on Earth, 2012: p.185
  8. ^ a b Ibn Khaldun (1967). The Muqaddimah : an introduction to history ; in three volumes. 1. Princeton University Press. p. 387. ISBN 0691017549. Retrieved 3 September 2015.
  9. ^ Al-Shatibi, Ibrahim ibn Musa. al-I'itsam. pp. 1:49.
  10. ^ Kamrava, Mehram (2011). "1. Contextualizing Innovation in Islam". In Kamrava, Mehram (ed.). Innovation in Islam : Traditions and Contributions. University of California Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-520-26695-7. Retrieved 28 November 2024.
  11. ^ Ruthven, Malise (1984). Islam in the World. Great Britain: Penguin Books. p. 158. Bid'a would acquire pejorative connotations — equivalent almost to heresy — in the religious vocabulary {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  12. ^ a b c Sayeed, Mohammed F. (2010). Fundamental Doctrine of Islam and Its Pragmatism. Xlibris Corporation. p. 157. ISBN 978-1-4535-0251-8. Retrieved 29 November 2024. Accordingly to Sunnah, a distinction should be made on principle between desirable, good innovation (bidah hasanah) and prohibited bad innovation (bidah sayyiah). In the Afterlife, serious punishments are reserved for those who introduced the latter. Soon however, every innovation was suspected of being inadmissible, and the term bidah took on the general meaning of bad "innovations" so to say any innovation apart from Islamic scholars (ulama) ... As the Middle Ages progressed, the allegation of bidah became a formidable weapon against progress.
  13. ^ a b c d e f g Kamrava, Mehram (2011). "1. Contextualizing Innovation in Islam". In Kamrava, Mehram (ed.). Innovation in Islam : Traditions and Contributions. University of California Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-520-26695-7. Retrieved 28 November 2024.
  14. ^ Al-Qawaa'id wal-Usool al-Jaami'ah wal-Furooq wat-Taqaaseem al-Badee'ah an-Naafi'ah by Abd ar-Rahman ibn Naasir as-Sa'di
  15. ^ Fat-hul Baari by Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani (vol.2, page 443)
  16. ^ Oliver, Haneef James (2002). The Wahhabi myth : dispelling prevalent fallacies and the fictitious link with Bin Laden. Victoria, B.C.: Trafford. ISBN 1-55395-397-5. OCLC 51274504.
  17. ^ al-Masri, Jamaluddin ibn al-Manzur. Lisan al-'Arab. pp. 8:6.
  18. ^ a b "Bid'ah Hasanah ("Good Innovations") 864". Islam Question & Answer. Retrieved 2 December 2024.
  19. ^ a b c d e "Concept of Bid`ah and Its Classification". Islam Online. Retrieved 1 December 2024.
  20. ^ a b c d e f g h Editors of the Britannica; Zeidan, Adam. "bidʿah". Britannica. Retrieved 1 December 2024. {{cite web}}: |last1= has generic name (help)
  21. ^ Nawawi, Al-. Tahzeeb al-Asma wal-Lugha. Vol. 2. pp. 22–23.
  22. ^ "Al-Ma'idah:3". quran.com. Retrieved 1 December 2024.
  23. ^ Lewis, Bernard (2009). "12. Religion and Law". Middle East. p. 227-8. Retrieved 1 December 2024.
  24. ^ Ruthven, Malise (1984). Islam in the World. Great Britain: Penguin Books. p. 153. Bid'a would acquire pejorative connotations — equivalent almost to heresy — in the religious vocabulary {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  25. ^ Al-I'tisaam of ash-Shaatibee (1/37)
  26. ^ [Tirmizi chapter Il
  27. ^ (Hafidhh ibn Rajjab, Jaami' Al Uloom Al Hukkam, p 252)
  28. ^ (Hafidh ibn Taymiyyah, Iqtidah al Sirat al Mustaqeem. chapter on bid'ah)
  29. ^ al-Dhahabi, Muhammad ibn Ahmad. Kitab al-Kaba'ir.
  30. ^ Lewis, Bernard (2009). "12. Religion and Law". Middle East. p. 229. Retrieved 1 December 2024.
  31. ^ Sahih Muslim, 9:3601
  32. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 8:80:8747
  33. ^ Abu Shaamah (no. 39)
  34. ^ al-Bayhaqee in as-Sunan al-Kubraa (4/316)
  35. ^ al-Laalikaa'ee - Sharh Usool I'tiqaad Ahlis-Sunnah wal-Jamaa'ah (no. 238)
  36. ^ Abu Nu'aym in al-Hilyah (7/26) and Ibn Battah (no.444)
  37. ^ Kitaab-ul-Iman wa-al-Qadr, transmitted by Abu Dawood, Tirmidhi and Ibn Majah
  38. ^ Abu ‘Iyaad as-Salafi. "Warning Against the Innovators". salafi publications. Archived from the original on 26 June 2015. Retrieved 26 June 2015.
  39. ^ al-Laalikaa'ee – Sharh Usool I'tiqaad Ahlis-Sunnah wal-Jamaa'ah (no.267)
  40. ^ Sunan ad-Daarimee (1/121)
  41. ^ al-Laalikaa'ee – Sharh Usool I'tiqaad Ahlis-Sunnah wal-Jamaa'ah (1/139)
  42. ^ Tabaqaatul-Hanaabilah – Volume 2, Page 44
  43. ^ Sharh Usool I'tiqaad Ahlus-Sunnah wal-Jamaa'ah – al-Laalikaa'ee – Volume 1, Page 179
  44. ^ Abu 'Uthmaan as-Saaboonee, The 'Aqeedah of the (Pious) Predecessors – Page 101
  45. ^ Ahmed Sirhindi Faruqi. "3". Maktubat Imam Rabbani (Shaykh Ahmed Sirhindi) (in English and Punjabi). Archived from the original on 2009-08-10. Retrieved 22 November 2023.
  46. ^ Tirmidhi. "41 Chapters on Knowledge (15)Chapter: Whoever Calls To Guidance And Is Followed Or To Misguidance". Sunnah.com. Retrieved 2 December 2024.
  47. ^ Sahih Muslim, 34:6466
  48. ^ Duderija, Adis (2015-10-14). The Sunna and Its Status in Islamic Law: The Search for a Sound Hadith. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 81. ISBN 9781137369925.
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  50. ^ Sunan ibn Majah 5:36:3950
  51. ^ a b Valentine, Simon Ross (2015-08-01). Force and Fanaticism: Wahhabism in Saudi Arabia and Beyond. Oxford University Press. p. 88. ISBN 9781849046152.
  52. ^ Sahih Bukhari, 3:32:227
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  54. ^ Shavit, Uriya (2015-11-12). Shari'a and Muslim Minorities: The wasati and salafi approaches to fiqh al-aqalliyyat al-Muslima. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780191074448. It was accorded a second, positive connotation by the second Khalifa Umar, who said in regard to the prayer of Ramadan that it is a blessed innovation.
  55. ^ Ibn Majah, page 249
  56. ^ Sahih Bukhari, 2:21:250
  57. ^ a b c Keller, Nuh Ha Mim (1995). The Concept of Bid'a in the Islamic Shari'a. Muslim Academy Trust]. p. 5. ISBN 1-902350-02-2.
  58. ^ Sahih Bukhari, 4:52:281
  59. ^ Sahih Bukhari, 1:12:764
  60. ^ al-Bayhaqi, Manaqib al-Shafi'i, in Qastallani, X, p 342. Cf Muhammad al-Adbari, al-Madhkal (Alexandria, 1293), III, p 293.
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  62. ^ Böwering, Gerhard; Crone, Patricia (2013-01-01). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton University Press. p. 218. ISBN 978-0691134840.
  63. ^ Goldziher, Ignác (1973-01-01). Muslim Studies, Vol. 1. SUNY Press. pp. 36–37. ISBN 9780873952347.
  64. ^ Answering-Ansar.org :: Bidah (Innovation) Archived March 16, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
  65. ^ Bin Bayyah, Abdullah. "On Celebrating the Prophet's Birthday". Archived from the original on 2011-09-29.
  66. ^ see Nurcholish Madjid, "Ibn Taymiyya on Kalam and Falsafa: A Problem of Reason and Revelation in Islam" (Ph.D. dissertation., University of Chicago, 1984), pp.235-36.
  67. ^ a b Kadri, Heaven on Earth, 2012: p.190
  68. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 4:56:680
  69. ^ a b Al-Ghazali, Book of Knowledge, p. 206
  70. ^ Valentine, Simon Ross (2015-08-01). Force and Fanaticism: Wahhabism in Saudi Arabia and Beyond. Oxford University Press. p. 87. ISBN 9781849046152. Wahhabism, literal and narrow in its exegesis of the Quran and hadith regards bida as 'whatever religious practice or concept had come into being after the third century of the Islamic era', or as some ulema argue, those things introduced into society which were not known at the time of Prophet Muhammad (s)
  71. ^ Abd-Allah, Umar Faruq (2006). Innovation and Creativity In Islam (PDF). A Nawawi Foundation Paper. p. 2. ISBN 1-902350-02-2.

Further reading

  • Abdullah, 'Umar Faruq, "Heaven", in Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God (2 vols.), edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2014, Vol I, pp. 251–254.
  • Keller, Nuh Ha Mim. (1995). The Concept of Bidʻa in the Islamic Shariʻa. Muslim Academy Trust. 1-902350-02-2.

Sunni view

Shiʻa view

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