Soil Conservation Issues in India
<p>Design of wind barrier to control wind erosion.</p> "> Figure 2
<p>Adoption = Performance + Trade-offs + Context + (P × T × C) (Source: Corbeels <span class="html-italic">et al.</span> [<a href="#B101-sustainability-08-00565" class="html-bibr">101</a>]).</p> "> Figure 3
<p>Farm pond for rain-water harvesting in Telengana, India.</p> "> Figure 4
<p>Stone pitching and stepped gabion for gully control in Telengana.</p> "> Figure 5
<p>Sand bag structure for gully control in Telengana.</p> "> Figure 6
<p>Farm pond technology in farmer’s field in the Gangetic coastal region of West Bengal.</p> "> Figure 7
<p>Deep furrow and high ridge technology at farmer’s field in the Gangetic coastal region of West Bengal.</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Soil Degradation at Work
2.1. Soil Degradation in the Indian Himalayas
2.2. Soil Degradation in the Indo-Gangetic Plains
2.2.1. Ground-Water Exploitation and Falling Water-Tables
2.2.2. Declining Soil Health
2.2.3. Burning of Crop Residues
2.3. Soil Degradation in Dry and Arid Regions
2.4. Soil Degradation on Coastal Lands in India
3. “Best Bet” Options for Soil Conservation
3.1. “Best Bet” Optionsfor Soil Conservation in the Hilly Regions
3.1.1. Controlling Landslides/Landslips
3.1.2. Controlling River Bank Erosion
3.1.3. Extreme Rainfall Induced Disaster in Uttarakhand and Some Remedial Measures
- The agricultural fields/habitations situated within the high flood level of rivers/streams were washed away and damage was evident on adjacent flooded lands.
- The intensity of damage was more in untreated watersheds compared to treated ones.
- Maximum mass erosion problem observed was due to landslides/slips, especially along roads. Landslides/slips were more frequent where no retaining walls or toe drains were provided and slopes were unvegetated.
- The drainage lines (Nalas/gullies) treated with proper bioengineering measures (gabion check dams), even when they were 20–30 years old, were little affected.
- The diversion drains constructed by some farmers (at their own initiative) for safe disposal of runoff water saved valuable agricultural land and crops.
- Degraded hillslopes and landslides/slips treated some 12 years earlier with geojute technology were stable and had a lush green vegetation cover.
- Erosion problem was minimal in areas with good agroforestry practises.
3.1.4. Impacts of Watershed Development Programmes
3.1.5. Impacts of Watershed Management
3.2. “Best Bet” Options in the Deserts
3.2.1. Management and Control of Wind Erosion
3.2.2. Sand Dune Stabilization
3.2.3. Surface Cover
3.2.4. Wind Breaks and Shelterbelts
3.2.5. Tillage
3.2.6. Crop Management
4. Issues Related to Conservation Options in Different Regions
4.1. Indo-Gangetic Plains
4.1.1. Conservation Agriculture
(1) Crop Yield Issues
(2) Environmental Issues (Soil, Water and Atmosphere)
(3) Economic Issues (Cost: Benefit Analysis of Technologies)
- High initial expenditures of planting equipment.
- The completely new dimension and dynamics of a conservation farming system, which requires high management skills and a learning process.
- Risk of crop failure and decreased crop productivity in the initial years.
- New pest and disease problems.
- A shift in dynamics of dominant weed species and altered availability of N, as some N may be locked up within soil aggregates due to better SOM availability. This leads to difficulties in fertilizer management, mainly in the residue-retained plots.
(4) Social Issues
(5) Policy Issues of Adoption of Conservation Agriculture
4.1.2. Watershed Management
(1) Productivity Issues
(2) Socio-Economic Issues
(3) Environmental Issues: Ground-Water Management
(4) Policy Issues
- Decreasing use of agrochemicals and organic farming in suitable areas.
- Decreasing stock density of sheep and/or cattle.
- Using farm practises compatible with environmental protection and management of natural resources.
- Involvement of elected representatives of the people (Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs) and Members of Parliament (MPs)) in the development process may assist decentralization of decision-making processes for better implementation of Government Plans [106].
4.2. Issues Related to Conservation Practices in Central India
4.2.1. Broad-Bed, Furrow System and Conservation Furrow System
(1) Crop Productivity Issues
4.2.2. Contour Bunding
4.2.3. Contour Farming
4.2.4. Vegetative Barriers
4.2.5. Integrated Watershed Management
Standardization of Design Parameters for Engineering Measures, including Rainfall-Runoff-Soil Loss Relationships
4.3. Issues Related to Soil Conservation Options in Southern Peninsular India
4.3.1. Productivity Issues
4.3.2. Environmental Issues
4.3.3. Economic Issues
4.3.4. Social Issues
4.3.5. Political Issues
4.4. Soil and Water Conservation Issues in Coastal Regions
4.4.1. Soil and Water Conservation through Land Shaping Techniques in Coastal Regions
4.4.2. Integrated Soil Water Management in Rainfed Regions
4.5. Soil Conservation Issues in Deserts
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
Glossary of Indian terms:
Khar means brackish |
Pokhali soil means acid sulphate soils (pH ~3.5) |
Ber is a tree (Ziziphus mauritiana) |
kakh is a type of pit |
Rabi season means winter season |
khali means empty |
Kharif season means rainy season |
1 Lakh/Lac Rupees = 100,000 Rupees |
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Serial No. | Soil Conservation Region | Annual Rainfall (mm) | Important Areas | Major Problems |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | North Himalayan (excluding cold desert) | 500–2000 | Mountains, temperate arid, semi-arid and sub-humid areas of Jammu and Kashmir, hill areas and Himachal Pradesh. | Soil erosion along hill slopes. |
2 | North eastern Himalayan | 1500–2500 | Northeastern hills | Shifting cultivation. |
3 | Indo-Gangetic alluvial soils | 700–1000 | Punjab, Haryana, parts of northeastern Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, Rajasthan, Gujarat. | Sheet erosion, ravine lands and floods. |
4 | Assam Valley and Gangetic Delta | 1500–2500 | Assam, Tripura, North Bengal and Gangetic Delta Plains, parts of West Bengal. | Gully and stream bank erosion. |
5 | Desert area | 150–500 | Western central Rajasthan, parts of Haryana and Gujarat. | Shifting sand dunes and wind erosion. |
6 | Mixed red, black and yellow soils | 600–700 | Districts of Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh and northern Madhya Pradesh. | Ravine. |
7 | Black soils | 500–700 | South western Rajasthan, part of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. | Sheet erosion and lack of ground-water recharge. |
8 | Black soils (deep and medium deep) | 800–1300 | Parts of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh. | Excessive soil erosion. |
9 | Eastern red soils | 1000–1500 | Bulk of West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Eastern Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, and part of Andhra Pradesh. | Sheet and gully erosion and improper land management. |
10 | Southern red soils | ~750, in Kerala ≤2500 | Bulk of Tamil Nadu hills and plains, Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and parts of Maharashtra. | Sheet and gully erosion. |
11 | East-west coasts | East coast ~1000 and rest heavy rainfall | East and West coast from Orissa to Saurashtra. | Coastal salinity and soil erosion. |
Seasonal Rainfall (mm) | |||
---|---|---|---|
<500 | 500–700 | 750–1000 | >1000 |
Contour cultivation with conservation furrows | Contour cultivation with conservation furrows | Broad-bed and Furrow(BBF) (Vertisols) | BBF (Vertisols) |
Ridging sowing across slopes | Ridging | Conservation furrows | Field bunds |
Mulching | Sowing across slopes | Sowing across slopes | Vegetative bunds |
Scoops | Scoops | Tillage | Graded bunds |
Tied ridges | Tide ridges | Lack and spill drains | Level terrace |
Off-season tillage | Mulching | Small basins | |
Inter-row water harvesting system | Zingg terrace | Field bunds | |
Small basins | Off-season tillage | Vegetative bunds | |
Contour bunds | BBF (broad bed and furrow system) | Graded bunds | |
Field bunds | Inter-row water harvesting system | Nadi | |
Khadin | Small basins | Zingg terrace | |
Modified contour bunds | |||
Field bunds | |||
Khadin |
No. | Title of Potential Technology and Cost (Rupees ha−1) | Region/State |
---|---|---|
Arable land (I–IV) (vegetative measure) | ||
1 | Conservation Bench Terrace 19,000. | Uttarakhand Himachal Pradesh |
2 | Maize + Cowpea Intercropping for Resource Conservation and Higher Productivity 17,000. | Uttarakhand |
3 | Conservation Tillage Maximizing Productivity in Maize-Toria Cropping System 16,440. | Uttarakhand |
4 | Vegetative Barriers Rs. 6.2 per m running length. | Uttarakhand Himachal Pradesh |
5 | Supplemental Irrigation form Harvested Rain-water for Higher Crop Production in Shivalik Region Cost: 9675. | Himachal Pradesh Punjab |
Agroforestry system (non-arable land) | ||
1 | Aonla Based Land Use Systems for Degraded Shivaliks 17,180 with in situ bunding and 23,500 for new orchard. | Himachal Pradesh Punjab |
2 | Ber Based Agri-Horticultural Systems of Marginal Lands in Shivaliks 14,000. | Himachal Pradesh Punjab Manipur Meghalaya |
3 | Silvipastoral Systems for Wasteland Utilization in Foothills of the Western Himalayas 24,175. | Uttarakhand |
4 | Peach Based Agri-horticultural Practises for Utilization of Marginal Lands 30,180 (with in situ bunded plants), 36,280 with nursery raised plants). | Uttarakhand Meghalaya |
Engineering/bio-engineering measures (non-arable land) | ||
1 | Water Mill Based Integrated Farming System (IFS) for North-western Himalayas 70,000/unit. | Uttarakhand HP J and K |
2 | Rehabilitation of Mine Spoils in Hilly Regions 50,000. | Uttarakhand HP J and K |
3 | Katta-Crate Technology: A Cost Effective Measure for Rehabilitation of Torrents and Mine-spoil Areas Cost: Rs.624/m3. | Uttarakhand HP J and K |
1 | Geotextiles for Soil Conservation Cost: Rs.27/m2 (for jute geotextile) Rs.53/m2 (for coir geotextile). | Uttarakhand HP J and K |
2 | Bio-engineering in Torrents of Shiwaliks Cost: Rs. 3–10 lakh/km. | Uttarakhand HP J and K |
Indicator | Particulars | Unit | People’s Participation | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
High | Medium | Low | |||
Efficiency | C:B | ratio | 2.63 | 1.60 | 1.42 |
IRR | % | 38.28 | 22.26 | 17.30 | |
Equity | Employment | Person days ha−1·year−1 | 165.17 | 118.73 | 105.42 |
Sustainability | Increase in irrigated area | % | 77.43 | 56.17 | 29.43 |
Increase in cropping intensity | % | 44.60 | 24.96 | 32.03 | |
Runoff reduced | % | 43.24 | 40.41 | 69.00 | |
Soil loss reduced | t·ha−1·year−1 | 1.18 | 1.10 | 0.87 | |
Per capita income of the region | |||||
High | Medium | Low | |||
Efficiency | C:B | ratio | 1.75 | 1.96 | 2.25 |
IRR | % | 24.55 | 27.90 | 30.64 | |
Equity | Employment | Person days ha−1·year−1 | 91.05 | 159.70 | 164.30 |
Sustainability | Increase in irrigated area | % | 48.48 | 45.83 | 76.02 |
Increase in cropping intensity | % | 31.40 | 34.09 | 43.75 | |
Runoff reduced | % | 43.21 | 43.27 | 49.32 | |
Soil loss reduced | t·ha−1·year−1 | 1.18 | 1.10 | 0.87 |
Purpose | Design | Suitable Species |
---|---|---|
Road side | 3 to 5 staggered rows | Acacia tortilis, Prosopisjuliflora, Tamarixarticulate, Acacia nubica |
Railway side | 6 rows | Parkinsoniaaculeata, P. juliflora, T. articulata |
Canal side | rows | Acacia nilotica, Eucalyptus spp., Tecomella. undulata, A. tortilis, P. juliflora, D. sissoo, P. cineraria |
Farm boundary (rainfed) | 1/2/3 rows | Acacia tortilis, A. lebbeck, A. indica, D. sissoo, P. aculeata, P. juliflora, A. senegal |
Farm boundary (irrigated) | 2 rows | A. tortilis, A. lebbeck, Dicrostachyscinerea, P. juliflora |
Technologies | Location | Crop/Cropping | Yield Gain vs. Conventional Agriculture (kg·ha−1) | Water Saving vs. Conventional Agriculture (ha-cm) | Increase in Water Productivity (kg·m−3) | Net Return vs. Conventional Agriculture ($·ha−1) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Laser levelling | Meerut | Rice-wheat | 750 | 26.5 | 0.06 | 144 | [79] |
Karnal | Rice-wheat | 810 | 24.5 | - | [80] | ||
Lidhiana | Rice | 750 | 22.0 | - | [81] | ||
Zero-tillage | Karnal | Wheat | 15–400 | 2–4 | 0.10–0.21 | 15–24 | [82] |
Meerut | Wheat | 610 | 2.2 | 0.28 | 196 | [83] | |
Delhi | Maize (Corn) | 150 | 8.0 | 0.21 | [84] | ||
Zero-tillage with residue mulch | Karnal | Rice-wheat | 500 | 61.0 | 0.24 | [85] | |
Meerut | Wheat | 410 | 10.0 | 0.13 | [86] | ||
New Delhi | Cotton-wheat | 2540 | - | 0.26 | 502 | [87] | |
Direct seeded rice | Ghaziabad | Rice | 120 | 25.0 | 0.08 | [88] | |
Ludhiana | Rice | 510 | 13.0 | 0.09 | - | [89] | |
Karnal | Rice | 62 | 18.0 | 0.10 | [90] | ||
Raised-bed planting | Meerut | Maize (Corn) | 324 | 12.0 | 0.80 | [91] | |
Meerut | Wheat | 310 | 16.0 | 0.58 | - | [92] | |
Kaithal | Wheat | 270 | 5.0 | 0.50 | [93] |
Year | Location | Number of Farmers Involved | Grain Yield (kg·ha−1) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Zero-Tillage | Farmers’ Practise a | |||
1999–2000 | Haryana | 124 | 5380 | 5110 |
2000–2003 | Eastern Uttar Pradesh | 357 | 3350 | 2980 |
2001–2004 | Western Uttar Pradesh | 27 | 5120 | 4980 |
Parameters | Farmers’ Perceptions | Researchers’ Findings |
---|---|---|
Sowing | Wheat sowing 5–14 days earlier, depending on size of farms | Wheat sowing can be advanced by 5–15 days |
Fuel saving | Not available | Average 60 L diesel per ha |
Cost of cultivation | US $42–92 ha−1 | US $37–62 ha−1 |
Weed infestation | 20% less and weaker weeds | 43% less |
Irrigation | Saves 30%–50% water in the first and 15%–20% in subsequent irrigations | 36% less water used |
Fertilizer use efficiency | High | High due to placement |
Wheat yield | Higher, depending on days planted earlier | 420–530 kg more per ha |
Watershed Location | Crop | Grain Yield (t·ha−1) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Vidisha and Guna | Farmers’ practise | BBF system | % Increase in Yield | |
Soybean | 1.27 | 1.72 | 35 | |
Chickpea | 0.80 | 1.01 | 21 | |
Bhopal | Maize | 2.81 | 3.65 | 30 |
Wheat | 3.30 | 3.25 | 16 |
Cropping System | Rainfall Use Efficiency (kg·ha−1·mm−1) | |
---|---|---|
Flat-on-Grade | Broad-Bed and Furrow | |
Soybean-chickpea | 8.2 | 11.6 |
Maize-chickpea | 8.9 | 11.6 |
Soybean/Maize-chickpea | 8.9 | 10.9 |
Watershed Location | Crop | Grain Yield (t·ha−1) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Farmers’ Practise | Conservation Furrows | % Increase in Yield | ||
Haveri | Maize | 3.57 | 4.10 | 15 |
Dharwad | Soybean | 1.50 | 1.80 | 20 |
Kolar | Groundnut | 1.05 | 1.22 | 16 |
Tumkur | Groundnut | 1.29 | 1.49 | 15 |
Conservation Structures | Cost: Benefit Ratio | Pay-Back Period (years) |
---|---|---|
Contour bunding | 3.66 | 3 |
Graded bunding | 5.62 | 1 |
Broadbase bunds | 4.97 | 1 |
Zingg terrace | 7.61 | 1 |
Contour ditch | 2.09 | 5 |
Treatment | Runoff (%) | Soil Loss (t·ha−1) | Soil Moisture (w/w) (%) at 0–15 cm depth in Standard Weeks | Finger Millet Yield (q/ha−1) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
46 | 47 | 48 | 49 | ||||
Control (along the slope cultivation) | 26.30 | 11.01 | 7.69 | 3.85 | 3.68 | 3.35 | 18.60 |
Existing bunds (across major slope) | 20.10 | 7.36 | 9.09 | 6.49 | 3.74 | 3.62 | 19.30 |
Graded bunds | 10.62 | 3.71 | 10.13 | 7.59 | 4.58 | 3.81 | 24.12 |
Contour bunds | 3.80 | 1.30 | 11.84 | 8.00 | 5.76 | 4.32 | 24.25 |
Khus on contour | 7.90 | 2.48 | 11.39 | 7.85 | 5.68 | 4.18 | 24.75 |
Serial No. | Soil Conservation Region | Rainfall (mm/year) | Important Areas | Problems |
---|---|---|---|---|
1. | Black soils | 500–700 | Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and small parts of Tamil Nadu | Sheet erosion and acute water shortage |
2. | Black soil (deep and medium deep) | 800–1300 | Parts of Andhra Pradesh | High soil erosion and water-logging |
3. | Eastern red soils | 1000–1500 | Part of Andhra Pradesh | Sheet erosion, and recurring drought |
4. | Southern red soils | ~750, ≤2500 mm | Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra | Sheet erosion, gullies, and lack of ground-water recharge |
Seasonal Rainfall (mm) | Soil and Water Conservation Measures | |
---|---|---|
<500 | Contour cultivation with conservation furrows, Mulching, Inter-row water harvesting system | Tied ridges, Contour bunds |
500–750 | Zingg terrace, Modified Contour bunds and Broad bed furrow | |
750–1000 | Broad bed furrow, Field bunds, and Graded bunds | Conservation furrows, Lock and spill drains, Small basins, |
>1000 | Choes, Level terraces, Nadi and Zingg terrace |
Land Shaping Models | Land Situation Created | Crops | Water Harvesting Capacity (m3)/ha (in % area) | Rice Equivalent Yield (REY) (kg/ha) | Operational Cost and Returns (Kharif + Rabi) (Rs./ha) | Benefit-Cost Ratio (Rank) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Kharif Season | Rabi/Summer Season | ||||||||
Total Cost | Total Return | Net Return | |||||||
Farm Pond (FP) | (a) Pond (20%) | Fish | Fish | 3313 | 15,172 | 59,162 | 43,990 | ||
(b) High land and dikes (20%) | Vegetables, fruit crops | Vegetables, fruit crops | 5177 | 17,700 | 48,206 | 30,506 | |||
(c) Medium land (20%) | HYV Rice | Vegetables, low water requiring field crops | 2976 | 14,792 | 39,175 | 24,383 | |||
(d) Original lowland (40%) | Paddy + fish | Low water requiring field crops/vegetables, short duration rice | 3546 | 18,459 | 48,769 | 30,311 | |||
Total | 5000 (20%) | 15,012 | 66,123 | 195,313 | 85,199 | 2.95 (1) | |||
Deep furrow and high ridge (DF) | (a) Furrows (25%) | paddy + Fish | Fish | 5316 | 32,778 | 92,824 | 60,046 | ||
(b) Ridges (25%) | Vegetables and fruit crops/multi-purpose tree species | Vegetables and fruit crops/multi-purpose tree species (MPTs) | 2953 | 18,730 | 43,151 | 24,421 | |||
(c) Original lowland (50%) | Rice under paddy + fish | Low water requiring field crops/vegetables | 4219 | 20,916 | 31,504 | 10,588 | |||
Total | 1875 (25%) | 12,488 | 72,424 | 167,479 | 95,055 | 2.31(2) | |||
Paddy-cum-fish (PCF) | (a) Trenches (11%) | Fish under paddy + Fish | Fallow | 1919 | 32,254 | 78,985 | 46,731 | ||
(b) Dikes (12%) | Vegetables and fruit crops/MPTs | Vegetables and fruit crops/MPTs | 1873 | 9707 | 29,559 | 19,852 | |||
(c) Original low land (77%) | Paddy + fish | Low water requiring field crops/vegetables | 8321 | 26,133 | 36,307 | 10,174 | |||
Total | 1400(12%) | 12,113 | 68,094 | 144,851 | 76,757 | 2.13 (3) | |||
Paddy-cum-fish+brackish water fish (PCF + BWF) | (a) Trenches (11%) | paddy + Fish | Brackish water Fish | 1963 | 123,817 | 261,054 | 137,237 | ||
(b) Dikes (12%) | Vegetables | - | 1821 | 10,148 | 21,209 | 11,061 | |||
(c) Original low land (77%) | Paddy + fish | Brackish water Fish | 7937 | 82,327 | 154,993 | 220,964 | |||
Total | 1400 (12%) | 11,721 | 216,291 | 437,255 | 220,964 | 2.02 (4) | |||
Shallow furrow and medium ridge (SF) | (a) Furrows (20%) | paddy + Fish | Rice | 1904 | 32,669 | 89,237 | 56,568 | ||
(b) Ridges (20%) | Vegetables and fruit crops/MPTs | Vegetables and fruit crops/MPTs | 2703 | 16,928 | 20,584 | 3656 | |||
(c) Original low land (60%) | Paddy + fish | Low water requiring field crops/vegetables | 6509 | 24,667 | 29,770 | 5103 | |||
Total | 1125 (20%) | 11,116 | 74,265 | 139,591 | 65,327 | 1.88 (5) | |||
Control (farmers’ practise) | 3111.0 | 20,487 | 25,436 | 4949 | 1.24 (6) |
© 2016 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Bhattacharyya, R.; Ghosh, B.N.; Dogra, P.; Mishra, P.K.; Santra, P.; Kumar, S.; Fullen, M.A.; Mandal, U.K.; Anil, K.S.; Lalitha, M.; et al. Soil Conservation Issues in India. Sustainability 2016, 8, 565. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8060565
Bhattacharyya R, Ghosh BN, Dogra P, Mishra PK, Santra P, Kumar S, Fullen MA, Mandal UK, Anil KS, Lalitha M, et al. Soil Conservation Issues in India. Sustainability. 2016; 8(6):565. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8060565
Chicago/Turabian StyleBhattacharyya, Ranjan, Birendra Nath Ghosh, Pradeep Dogra, Prasanta Kumar Mishra, Priyabrata Santra, Suresh Kumar, Michael Augustine Fullen, Uttam Kumar Mandal, Kokkuvayil Sankaranarayanan Anil, Manickam Lalitha, and et al. 2016. "Soil Conservation Issues in India" Sustainability 8, no. 6: 565. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8060565
APA StyleBhattacharyya, R., Ghosh, B. N., Dogra, P., Mishra, P. K., Santra, P., Kumar, S., Fullen, M. A., Mandal, U. K., Anil, K. S., Lalitha, M., Sarkar, D., Mukhopadhyay, D., Das, K., Pal, M., Yadav, R., Chaudhary, V. P., & Parmar, B. (2016). Soil Conservation Issues in India. Sustainability, 8(6), 565. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8060565