Abstract
This paper presents a review of the existing literature on the subject of home-based telework from an inclusion and diversity perspective, with a particular focus on workers with disabilities and workers who have family members with disabilities. The review aimed to map research articles that provide insights into the issues of work-life balance, work-life conflict and work-life enhancement. The articles were screened based on publication date, relevance and research contribution. The selected articles after the screening were synthesized, and their main themes organized in five groups: 1) employment; 2) work patterns and accommodations; 3) performance, 4) policy, and 5) work-life balance and enhancement. The article concludes with an overview of the implications of the findings of the survey for future research directions and highlights the need for a greater focus on diversity and inclusion when studying home-based teleworking and issues of work-life balance, work-family conflict and work-life enhancement. Suggestions as to how this can be achieved are presented, for example in considering new research designs that would include more diverse populations of teleworkers among informants or respondents.
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1 Introduction
The world of work has witnessed several waves of changes and upheavals, often as the result of new technologies. The diffusion of internet technology, especially during the last thirty years, has enabled new ways of working such as home telework. As many work tasks that traditionally were confined to being performed in a traditional office evolved both in form and content, the individuals that were carrying them out experienced being less constrained spatially. As Blake [1] puts it, telework is characterized by “moving the work to the workers, instead of the workers to work” (p. 1).
Concurrently, there has been an increased awareness around issues of work-life balance, as well as access to employment and inclusion at the workplace. However, there seems to be little empirical knowledge on whether and to what extent home and family life is enhanced or rendered more complicated by carrying out parts or all of one’s work from home. An additional element of uncertainty arises regarding issues of inclusion and diversity. In particular, little is known about how individuals with family members with a disability and individuals who have themselves a disability experience work-life balance in relation to teleworking. This article therefore aims to examine the literature that deals with telework, disabilities and work-life balance.
2 Overview of the Main Concepts
In this section, we provide a short overview of the main concepts used in this paper, namely a) work-life balance and related notions such as work-life conflict, work-life interface, work-life enrichment; b) telework and related terms such as telecommuting and virtual work; and c) disability and inclusion.
2.1 Work-Life Balance, Conflict, Interface and Enrichment
One traditional outlook on work-life balance has consisted of defining it as a lack or a low level of conflict between roles [2]. However, an increased awareness of the existence of conflict has contributed to shifting the focus away from a somewhat unrealistic belief that harmony between the different roles played by individuals is both possible and preferable.
Greenhaus and Beutell [3] define work-family conflict as “a form of interrole conflict in which the role pressures from the work and family domains are mutually incompatible in some respect” (p. 77). They distinguish three types of work-family conflicts: 1) time-based conflict, whereby the different roles that a person has are competing with each other with relation to this person’s time; 2) strain-based conflict, where the strain incurred by one or more roles than a person has affects negatively this person’s ability to perform in another role; 3) behavior-based conflict, where the type of behavior that is required to fulfil one role (for example in the workplace) differs greatly from the type of behavior expected in another role (for example as a family member) [3]. Later works [4] have distinguished between “family-work conflict”, whereby the pressure from work interferes with the demands of family life and “work-family conflict”, where the pressure from family life interferes with work.
Another outlook on work-life balance has been to understand it as a high level of work-life enrichment. Work-life enrichment has been defined [5] as: “the extent to which experiences in one role improve the quality of life in the other role” (p. 72). For example, schedule flexibility has been found to empower workers as it acts as a resource that spans boundaries and increases thereby their agency [6].
Other scholars consider the concept of resources as inherent of work-family balance. For example, Voydanoff [7] suggests that “a global assessment that work resources meet family demands, and family resources meet work demands such that participation is effective in both domains” (p. 825) is required. Whereas Valcour [8] presented work-life balance as more an attitude that included affective elements as well as cognitive elements, other authors have argued for taking into account alternative factors in the study of work-life balance. For example, Grzywacz and Carlson [9] have described work-family balance as “accomplishment of role-related expectations that are negotiated and shared between an individual and his or her role-related partners in the work and family domains” (p. 466). They underline that the focus on accomplishment means that satisfaction is left out. Their approach to work–family balance is mainly based on the social aspects of the concept, thereby leaving out the psychological aspects of it. This, they explain “minimizes the potential of reducing work–family balance to an individual problem resulting from poor choices” (p. 466).
2.2 Home-Based Telework and Telecommuting
The literature on telework appears to stem from a large variety of research areas, including information systems, management, transportation, psychology and communication. The terms that are used to refer to telework in the literature also seem to vary depending on the academic discipline of the authors. For example, the concept of telework is often referred to as telecommuting, in particular in works by scholars from the field of sustainable transportation [10, 11], reflecting a societal interest in leveraging the potential of location-independent work to reduce the length and frequency of commuting. In the management and human resources literature, telework is also conceptualized from the point of view of virtual teams [12]. Teleworking as a concept refers to various forms of working involving the use of information technology, including working from home, working from locations outside traditional offices, as well as working in a traditional office but without or with less face-to-face interaction than usual with co-workers and customers [13].
The advantages of teleworking have been described as flexibility both for the workers and for their organizations. For workers, increased autonomy [14], flexible hours and the possibility to save time due to less or no commuting [15] have been highlighted as major advantages. For organizations, the advantages of teleworking include cost reduction due to a reduction in office space and productivity increase. In particular, teleworking has enabled “offshoring”, i.e. the process of outsourcing activities to distant locations [16]. However, a number of disadvantages have also surfaced in research, including social isolation [17], increased stress [18], overworking [19], reduced influence, and the limitation of career advancement options [20].
2.3 Disabilities, Inclusion and Diversity in Organizations
Inspired by the work of Cameron and Valentine [21], Jenks [22] presents a historical timeline of disability where four periods can be distinguished: an institutionalization period from 1600 to 1900 where people with various forms of impairment were gathered in institutions run either by the state or by the Church; a medicalization period from 1900 to 1945 that was contemporary to the eugenics movement; a rehabilitation period from 1945 to 1970 where the focus was on rehabilitating veterans from the Second World War; and a post-medicalization period since 1970 where persons with disabilities have started social movements that have had large-scale effects on society.
Humpage [23] describes discourses around disability as embedded in the reigning power structures in a society. In particular, while religious leaders had traditionally represented disability through an explanatory framework permeated with religious beliefs, the rise of scientific thinking and medical knowledge has shifted the discursive power away from religion and towards science. The Medical Model’s narrative has emphasized disability as a medical problem that needs to be treated, and ideally cured. This focus on “fixing a problem” has significantly limited the extent to which persons with disabilities have had a say in whether they wanted to participate in the “fixing” process [24].
The emancipatory movements have historically embraced a new understanding of disability generally referred to as the Social Model of disability, which emphasized the distinction between impairment, i.e. the functional limitations of an individual, and disability, which happens when impaired bodies have inadequate access to their environment and can therefore best be understood as a social construct. The Social Model is in many ways a response to the shortcomings of the Medical Model, in particular its role in legitimizing the exclusion or persons with disabilities from the labour market [25].
The Social Model highlights the need to find societal solutions to problems related to disability instead of focusing on fixing individual bodies. Within this model, a physical impairment will only affect a person’s well-being negatively if society has failed to make the necessary physical and organizational accommodations that would enable this person to participate fully in social activities [26].
The Relational Model of disability [27] has been described as bringing together both the social and the medical approaches [28], with a focus on the interaction between those two models [29]. According to the Relational Model as described in Lid [29], disability emerges “in the interaction between individuals and the environment, encompassing both social and material factors” (p. 205). The mismatch that surfaces between a person and their environment is referred to as a “gap” [29].
Other models of disability have been suggested, such as the Affirmation Model [30], or Affirmative Model, which focuses on the benefits that are brought about by impairments. This model offers an alternative conception of disability and impairment, in that it promotes a perspective whereby disability and impairment are not considered tragic. It also challenges the idea that disability is undesirable and advocates that diversity in bodies and minds is something that needs to be embraced and celebrated rather than problematized [31].
3 Method
The review conducted in this study was performed during the month of January 2020. The first phase of the process consisted in carrying out a number of searches including keywords that we identified as relevant in order to shed light on the topics under investigation.
3.1 Search Process
The authors of this paper performed a series of searches on the EBSCOhost platform covering the following databases: CINAHL with Full Text; Business Source Elite; CINAHL; EconLit; ERIC (Education Resource Information Center); Library, Information Science & Technology Abstracts; MEDLINE; SPORTDiscus with Full Text; Regional Business News; GreenFILE; SocINDEX; MLA International Bibliography; Food Science Source; eBook Collection (EBSCOhost); Library & Information Science Source; MathSciNet via EBSCOhost; Educations Source; International Bibliography or Theatre & Dance with Full Text; Academic Search Ultimate; and Teacher Reference Center. The searches were conducted using four different combinations of keywords shown in Table 1.
3.2 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
Papers were included if all three of the following conditions were fulfilled:
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1.
the paper was published in a peer-reviewed journal or magazine or as part of the proceedings from a peer-reviewed conference or workshop;
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2.
the language of the paper was English;
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3.
the paper was published in the timeframe 2000–2020.
Papers were excluded if one or more of the following was true:
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1.
the paper was not based on empirical research or on a systematic literature review
-
2.
the language of the paper was poor or opaque, making it difficult to understand the contribution of the paper.
4 Findings
4.1 Yearly Spread
By looking at each topic and related keywords, we gained insight into how the individual fields have evolved over that past two decades. The topics of work-life balance, work-family balance, work-family conflict, and work-family enhancement have received an increased amount attention in the academic literature over the past twenty years (Fig. 1). In the year 2000, our search resulted in 32 articles, whereas in 2018, it was a total of 1909 articles, which also returned the highest numbers of articles. In total, our search using those keywords uncovered a total of 16536 articles over the past twenty years.
The same trend can be observed when conducting a search using words related to disability/disabilities in employment, work-life, and workplace perspective (Fig. 2). Even though the increase in yearly publications over the period is not as substantial as with the topic of work-life balance, it is the search that has resulted in the highest number of publications (37624 results in total over the last 20 years).
The number of publications related to the topic of telework or telecommuting seems to have remained relatively unchanged over the past twenty years, with the highest result numbers of 144 and 141 in the years 2003 and 2012, and the lowest result number in 2011 with 45 publications retrieved from the databases used for the purpose of this study (Fig. 3). In total, searches for this topic resulted in 2184 publications in those databases.
Lastly, the topic of disability/disabilities and teleworking, telework, and telecommuting has relatively few results over the period (Fig. 4). The two years that stand out are 2006 and 2014, with respectively 8 and 10 results. The other years have between 0 to 3 results, with a total of 48 results over the past 20 years. After our inclusion and exclusion criteria was applied to the results generated through the searches, we ended up with a total of 17 papers, where the yearly spread is shown in Fig. 5. It is interesting to see that the most recent of the selected papers is from 2017, which indicates that interest for scholarly work on this topic is currently declining, which is in sharp contrast with the increased interest for issues surrounding work-life balance in general terms.
4.2 Overview of the Selected Articles
See Table 2.
5 Overview of the Main Topics Covered in the Selected Articles
See Table 3.
6 Discussion
In this section, the results from the mapping exercise are presented using a structure inspired from the categories identified above. The thematic headings in this section mirror the categories in Table 4, with some interrelated categories being merged into the same subsection for the purpose of clarity.
6.1 Employment
The first published article included in this review is Anderson et al. [32]. This paper provides an overview of how telecommuting can be a suitable work arrangement for persons with disabilities and aims to map out concerns that employers might have regarding the work arrangement for employees with disabilities.
In a literature review article that focuses on workers with spinal cord injuries (SCI), Frieden and Winnegar [39] reveal that workers with SCI have a low employment rates compared to persons without disabilities in the US, 35% to 64%. In addition, the article indicates that persons with disabilities over forty years of age tend to discontinue paid employment faster than persons without disabilities. Although the article does not provide a definite answer as to what could be the underlying reason for those numbers, it argues that the lack of knowledge on that topic calls for research into methods to stimulate the creations of jobs that are accessible to diverse populations. McNaughton et al. [42] echo those concerns and emphasize the need for companies to be more creative in how they approach the issue of accessible job creation.
The challenge of keeping a job appears to be a major obstruction to the well-being not only workers with disabilities, but also for workers who care for relatives with a disability. The result of an email survey described in Gnanasekaran et al. [47] show that 43% of the respondents either had to find another job, or had to reduce the number of hours in their current job, or had to quit paid employment entirely in order to be able to perform their care duties towards one or more children with disabilities.
Bricout [33] examines how telework can be vital in improving the chance of persons with spinal cord injuries getting back to work and identifies three elements that may play a role in whether a worker will benefit from this work arrangement: personal traits, environmental circumstances, and timing. This type of work often needs some level of technical skills and independence from the worker. In addition, environmental and contextual factors like the work market and the company’s views on teleworking may affect the chance of positive teleworking experience. Timing refers to the fact that working in a company with already established telework routines and frameworks will increase the chance of a positive telework experience. How these elements affect each other is uncertain, but teleworking can for this group of workers reduce some of the experienced barriers of returning to work.
In contrast, Lin et al. [41], in a preliminary study of the efficiency of home-based employment service programs for persons with disabilities, find that 36,5% of the participants had an increase in employment status. However, because of the limitations of the study, the authors recommend a longitudinal study to get a better understanding of the long-term impacts of these types of programs and of other possible factors that may affect future job possibilities.
6.2 Focus on Work Patterns and Accommodation
Most of the selected articles refer to work patterns. A survey described in Linden and Milchus [40] uncovers that flexible scheduling is widely used among teleworkers with disabilities and suggest that this is linked to issues of pain and fatigue, which in a traditional work environment could affect a worker negatively. However, although 20% of their survey respondents use telework in some capacity, less than half of them (9% of the total) view home-based telework as an accommodation for their job, which suggests that they might telework for other reasons than their disability.
Kaplan et al. [36] presents teleworking as a possible accommodation to workers with disabilities which can be used as a supplement to other accommodations. They emphasize the suitability of teleworking as an accommodation for employees whose degree of disability fluctuates over time and unpredictably and its potential to enable them to remain employed.
Padkapayeva et al. [48] review the accommodation options that are available in companies to reduce or remove physical, social and attitudinal barriers to gaining and maintaining employment. They identify the need to increase workplace flexibility and worker autonomy in addition to making physical, architectural or technological modifications. Accommodation of work location included working from home for the purpose of reducing work-related travel time and mitigating the effects of physical or architectural limitations in office buildings. This work can be related to the work of West and Anderson (2005), which list potential barriers to the use of telework as an accommodation and outlines a number of funding sources for the acquisition of technology, which are mostly relevant to a US readership.
Tennant [37] reports that access to jobs for persons with disabilities improved in the ten-year period between 1990 and 2000 in the USA and argues that this improvement is likely due to the combined effect of the Americans with Disabilities Act and improvements in technology. However, new employees were offered onsite jobs, and not work-from-home arrangements. The article reveals that work-from-home arrangements are available as an accommodation but are not used to their full potential.
6.3 Focus on Performance
Some of the selected articles focus on the issue of work-related performance. Yeh and Yang [45] examine how a new technical system can increase the efficiency of persons with visual disabilities to conduct their job as a telephone interviewer. The results suggest that the right type of equipment, properly designed software, and a functioning work process will enable workers with visual disabilities to be self-sufficient and to achieve high levels of work performance. This type of system can be used in similar working environments opening up the number of work opportunities for persons with visual impairments. The study had a small number of participants - a total of seven users – but indicated that there are possibilities to find efficient solutions that can improve both worker satisfaction and work efficiency with the right setup.
Another study that delves into the topic of performance is Rivas-Costa et al. [44], which presents an accessible platform created for persons with disabilities. One of the features of the system described in this article is a smart job advisor that would make it easier to find and locate relevant jobs suited to the user’s abilities—also reducing the user group’s dependence on external help when looking for work. The article describes different control devices that aim to ensure that the system is usable by a wide range of users. Although the research described in this article was a pilot study and therefore did not provide statistically significant results, there was a “consensus on the platform being perceived as useful, convenient, accessible, and simple to use’’ (p. 492).
6.4 Focus on Policy
Moon et al. [43] suggest a policy framework that takes into account both employer considerations and employee considerations, along technological feasibility and social learning in order to achieve successful outcomes of telework. Ekberg et al. [46] describe virtual workplaces not only as providing increased employment opportunities for persons with disabilities, but also as a way to prevent disability and return to work schemes.
Baker et al. [35] examine how policy can enhance teleworkers’ experience of being included in the workspace while reducing feelings of isolation with a special emphasis on the barriers and opportunities that are brought about in teleworking situations. The authors argue for a new outlook on policy that gives more weight to the employees’ perspective and focus less on the employer’s point of view.
6.5 Focus on Work-Life Balance
The potential benefits of avoiding long commuting time have been outlined in the telework literature as conducive to a higher degree of work-life balance. Moon et al. [43] suggest that this could be an even more important factor for persons with mobility or dexterity impairments. The study described in McNaughton et al. [42] points to similar results, as their participants expressed that the reduction in time spent on commuting was one of the major advantages of teleworking. The study also found that work-from-home agreements offered the participants an increased degree of time and space flexibility, which allowed them to fit necessary non-work activities, such as medical visits, into their schedule. Lastly, for the group of workers using augmentative and alternative communication (ACC) with complex communication needs (CNN), telework is better suited for most of the participants’ favored style of communicating. Since direct dialogue can be a challenge for the users of ACC, because of the fast pace, communicating through alternative methods appeared to be beneficial. Isolation from the workplace and the struggle of maintaining a healthy work-life balance seemed to be the disadvantages that the participants experienced most acutely while teleworking. The authors also state that “telework is developed as a choice for individuals with CCN, and not presented as the only available option because of poor infrastructure support (e.g., deficient public transportation, inaccessible buildings)’’ (p. 124).
Matthews et al. [38] is one of the few works from our search that treats the issue of work-life balance and work-family conflicts in telecommuting households where parents have the responsibility for a child with autism. They suggest that parents of children with a disability typically are in situations where they need to maintain a high level of flexibility in the boundary between work and family.
The email survey that is reported in Gnanasekaran et al. [47] aimed at mapping the lives of families with children with autism. Among the 161 respondents, 91% had used flexible work arrangements, and 86% had used some form of teleworking. One of the main causes for changing or quitting a job was a lack of work flexibility.
7 Limitations of the Review
The limitations of this literature review are twofold. First, the number of articles that satisfied the criteria for the search is relatively low, which suggests that a broader investigation of the literature, including a larger number of scholarly-work databases might be warranted. Second, the lack of clear-cut definitions for the terms used for the search (telework, work-life balance and disability) appears to be a non-negligible hurdle when attempting to carry out a systematic investigation of those topics. However, as the number of academic works on those topics continues to increase, it is probable that those definitions will become clearer over time, and future literature searches might consequently be easier to perform, with fewer articles being excluded due to lack of relevance.
8 Conclusion and Avenues for Future Research
In this article, we have provided an overview of the literature covering directly or indirectly the topics of work-life balance, work-life conflict and work-life enhancement for home-based teleworkers with disabilities or who care for relatives with disabilities.
Although much of the recent research describes telework as a possible accommodation for persons with disabilities as well as workers who have care responsibilities for family members with disabilities, there is generally little focus in the literature on the consequences of telework practices on their work-life balance. The significant surge in interest for work-life balance in the literature does not seem to have resulted in more attention towards its implications for teleworkers with disabilities and teleworkers with family members with disabilities. While several of the articles selected for this review imply that policies could have positive effects on the work environment and work-life balance of home-based teleworkers, none of them describes in any detail how this can be achieved and whether already established policies have yielded satisfactory results or have had unintended consequences.
It is also interesting to note that none of the selected articles (and, to our knowledge none of the non-selected articles either) proposed to study teleworkers with disabilities and teleworkers caring for relatives with a disability using the same analytical lens. In addition, this will allow to get insights in the experiences of individuals who both have a disability and care for a relative with a disability, which seems to be largely absent from the current literature. This gap could potentially be addressed by challenging existing research designs that are limited in scope. Including both groups of teleworkers in the same study might provide new insights into the issue of workplace diversity and access to work for diverse worker populations. More generally, our survey has revealed a relative scarcity of empirical data that can provide an in-depth understanding of the lived experience of those two groups of home-based teleworkers. Future research may include both quantitative and qualitative studies of aimed at uncovering how teleworking practices affect the work-life balance of diverse groups of teleworkers.
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Igeltjørn, A., Habib, L. (2020). Homebased Telework as a Tool for Inclusion? A Literature Review of Telework, Disabilities and Work-Life Balance. In: Antona, M., Stephanidis, C. (eds) Universal Access in Human-Computer Interaction. Applications and Practice. HCII 2020. Lecture Notes in Computer Science(), vol 12189. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-49108-6_30
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-49108-6_30
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