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42 pages, 6085 KiB  
Review
Strengthening Reinforced Concrete Members Using FRP—Evaluating Fire Performance, Challenges, and Future Research Directions: A State-of-the-Art Review
by Mahmood Haris, Ergang Xiong, Wanyang Gao, Mabor Achol Samuel, Najam Us Sahar and Anwar Saleem
Polymers 2025, 17(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym17010013 (registering DOI) - 25 Dec 2024
Abstract
Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites are increasingly used in civil engineering for strengthening and repairing existing reinforced concrete (RC) members using externally bonded reinforcement (EBR) and near-surface mounted (NSM) methods. However, the fire performance of FRP-strengthened RC members has been an important issue that [...] Read more.
Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites are increasingly used in civil engineering for strengthening and repairing existing reinforced concrete (RC) members using externally bonded reinforcement (EBR) and near-surface mounted (NSM) methods. However, the fire performance of FRP-strengthened RC members has been an important issue that should be properly considered in the fire safety design process since FRP composites exhibit significant performance degradation at elevated temperatures. This paper aims to review studies on the fire performance of FRP-strengthened RC members based on the existing research results presented in the literature to provide a comprehensive understanding of key factors influencing the structural behavior of FRP-strengthened RC members under fire conditions. It provides an overview of FRP composite material properties, such as their mechanical and thermal behavior and bond characteristics between FRP-to-concrete interfaces at elevated temperatures. Additionally, this paper reviews experimental and numerical research conducted on FRP-strengthened RC members, examining load-carrying capacities and fire endurance ratings. Finally, this review will provide existing fire resistance design methods as well as simple design methods for temperature prediction. Full article
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<p>Normalized elastic modulus of FRP materials (i.e., bars, plates, sheets) at elevated temperatures. (<b>a</b>) Bars; (<b>b</b>) Plates; (<b>c</b>) Sheets (Refs. [<a href="#B9-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">9</a>,<a href="#B11-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">11</a>,<a href="#B12-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">12</a>,<a href="#B18-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">18</a>,<a href="#B27-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">27</a>,<a href="#B28-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">28</a>,<a href="#B30-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">30</a>,<a href="#B31-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">31</a>,<a href="#B33-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">33</a>]).</p>
Full article ">Figure 1 Cont.
<p>Normalized elastic modulus of FRP materials (i.e., bars, plates, sheets) at elevated temperatures. (<b>a</b>) Bars; (<b>b</b>) Plates; (<b>c</b>) Sheets (Refs. [<a href="#B9-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">9</a>,<a href="#B11-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">11</a>,<a href="#B12-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">12</a>,<a href="#B18-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">18</a>,<a href="#B27-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">27</a>,<a href="#B28-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">28</a>,<a href="#B30-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">30</a>,<a href="#B31-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">31</a>,<a href="#B33-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">33</a>]).</p>
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<p>Normalized tensile strengths of FRP materials (i.e., bars, plates, sheets) at elevated temperatures. (<b>a</b>) Bars; (<b>b</b>) Plates; (<b>c</b>) Sheets (Refs. [<a href="#B2-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">2</a>,<a href="#B8-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">8</a>,<a href="#B9-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">9</a>,<a href="#B10-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">10</a>,<a href="#B11-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">11</a>,<a href="#B12-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">12</a>,<a href="#B18-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">18</a>,<a href="#B27-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">27</a>,<a href="#B28-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">28</a>,<a href="#B29-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">29</a>,<a href="#B30-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">30</a>,<a href="#B31-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">31</a>,<a href="#B32-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">32</a>,<a href="#B33-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">33</a>]).</p>
Full article ">Figure 2 Cont.
<p>Normalized tensile strengths of FRP materials (i.e., bars, plates, sheets) at elevated temperatures. (<b>a</b>) Bars; (<b>b</b>) Plates; (<b>c</b>) Sheets (Refs. [<a href="#B2-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">2</a>,<a href="#B8-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">8</a>,<a href="#B9-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">9</a>,<a href="#B10-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">10</a>,<a href="#B11-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">11</a>,<a href="#B12-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">12</a>,<a href="#B18-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">18</a>,<a href="#B27-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">27</a>,<a href="#B28-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">28</a>,<a href="#B29-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">29</a>,<a href="#B30-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">30</a>,<a href="#B31-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">31</a>,<a href="#B32-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">32</a>,<a href="#B33-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">33</a>]).</p>
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<p>FRP Composites Thermal Properties [<a href="#B37-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">37</a>].</p>
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<p>Failure modes (obtained from Correia et al. [<a href="#B47-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">47</a>]). (<b>a</b>) Anchorage slippage; (<b>b</b>) Epoxy adhesive failure at elevated temperature.</p>
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<p>Summary of test results from the bonded joint tests at elevated temperatures. (<b>a</b>) Normalized bond strengths vs. adhesives temperatures; (<b>b</b>) Normalized interfacial fracture energy vs. temperatures (Refs. [<a href="#B39-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">39</a>,<a href="#B40-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">40</a>,<a href="#B41-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">41</a>,<a href="#B42-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">42</a>,<a href="#B46-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">46</a>,<a href="#B48-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">48</a>,<a href="#B51-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">51</a>,<a href="#B54-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">54</a>]).</p>
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<p>Summary of the test results of normalized bond strengths vs. adhesives temperatures (Refs. [<a href="#B46-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">46</a>,<a href="#B65-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">65</a>,<a href="#B66-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">66</a>,<a href="#B68-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">68</a>,<a href="#B69-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">69</a>]).</p>
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<p>Comparisons of measured temperature responses of insulation, FRP, and FRP-to-concrete interfaces as a function of fire exposure time (Refs. [<a href="#B74-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">74</a>,<a href="#B75-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">75</a>,<a href="#B76-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">76</a>,<a href="#B77-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">77</a>]).</p>
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<p>Some common failure categories of FRP-strengthened beams [<a href="#B97-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">97</a>]. (<b>a</b>) Tensile rupture of FRP after steel yielding; (<b>b</b>) Concrete compression crushing; (<b>c</b>) Concrete cover delamination; (<b>d</b>) Debonding between FRP-to-concrete interface; (<b>e</b>) Shear failure; (<b>f</b>) Intermediate crack (IC) debonding.</p>
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<p>Temperature responses of beams A and B (determined by Adelzadeh [<a href="#B102-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">102</a>]).</p>
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<p>Debonding failure between FRP-to-concrete interface (obtained from Gao et al. [<a href="#B86-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">86</a>]).</p>
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<p>Diagram of thermocouples and fire insulation schemes (obtained from Dong et al. [<a href="#B87-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">87</a>]).</p>
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<p>Measured deflection at midspan responses as a function of fire duration [<a href="#B87-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">87</a>].</p>
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<p>Axial deformations of columns as a function of fire duration (Refs. [<a href="#B115-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">115</a>,<a href="#B116-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">116</a>,<a href="#B117-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">117</a>,<a href="#B118-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">118</a>]).</p>
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<p>FE model predictions of insulated CFRP-strengthened RC beams of Gao et al. [<a href="#B86-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">86</a>]. (<b>a</b>) mid-height temperature; (<b>b</b>) bottom surface temperature; (<b>c</b>) midspan deflection.</p>
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<p>Comparisons of measured and predicted load-deflection responses at ambient temperature (Refs. [<a href="#B138-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">138</a>,<a href="#B143-polymers-17-00013" class="html-bibr">143</a>]).</p>
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19 pages, 6083 KiB  
Article
Discussion on the Gradation and Interface Effects on the Dynamic Mechanical Behaviors of Hydraulic Concrete Based on Meso-Mechanical Simulation
by Chao Wang, Xinyu Zhou, Zhaopeng Deng, Xiaohua Wang, Sherong Zhang, Gaohui Wang and Peiyong Wei
Materials 2025, 18(1), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18010015 - 24 Dec 2024
Abstract
Hydraulic concrete is quite different from normal concrete in the terms of aggregate gradation and construction-induced interfaces. To explore their influences on the dynamic mechanical behaviors of hydraulic concrete, several mesoscale numerical models with different aggregate gradations and interfaces were established and subjected [...] Read more.
Hydraulic concrete is quite different from normal concrete in the terms of aggregate gradation and construction-induced interfaces. To explore their influences on the dynamic mechanical behaviors of hydraulic concrete, several mesoscale numerical models with different aggregate gradations and interfaces were established and subjected to dynamic compressive or tensile loadings. The results show that aggregate gradation significantly affected hydraulic concrete failure patterns under dynamic loads, but interface effects were less obvious, and stressing uniformity improved with an increasing loading rate. The dynamic compressive and tensile strengths of hydraulic concrete showed a strain rate effect independent of gradation, but decreased with larger coarse aggregates, especially at higher rates. Weak-bonding interfaces significantly reduced strength at low loading rates, with a more pronounced effect on tensile strength than compressive strength. The results of this study provide a theoretical basis for the application of hydraulic concrete containing large-size aggregates in practical engineering. Full article
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<p>The mesoscopic simulation models of hydraulic concrete uniaxial compression and tension tests: (<b>a</b>) single-axis compression test; (<b>b</b>) uniaxial tensile test.</p>
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<p>Schematic diagram of K&amp;C constitutive strength surface: (<b>a</b>) schematic diagram of the strength surface in the K&amp;C principal structure; (<b>b</b>) typical stress–strain relationship curve.</p>
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<p>Schematic diagram of the equation of state in the K&amp;C model.</p>
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<p>DIF relation of strain rate effect for coarse aggregate: (<b>a</b>) dynamic compressive strength; (<b>b</b>) dynamic tensile strength [<a href="#B46-materials-18-00015" class="html-bibr">46</a>,<a href="#B47-materials-18-00015" class="html-bibr">47</a>,<a href="#B48-materials-18-00015" class="html-bibr">48</a>,<a href="#B49-materials-18-00015" class="html-bibr">49</a>,<a href="#B50-materials-18-00015" class="html-bibr">50</a>].</p>
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<p>Validation of mesoscopic numerical model: (<b>a</b>) uniaxial compressive tests; (<b>b</b>) comparison of strain rate effect; (<b>c</b>) direct tensile tests.</p>
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<p>Compressive failure modes of hydraulic concrete with different aggregate gradations.</p>
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<p>Aggregate gradation effect on the dynamic compressive strength of hydraulic concrete.</p>
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<p>The coupled effect of aggregate gradation and strain rate on dynamic compressive strength: (<b>a</b>) strain rate effect for different aggregate gradations; (<b>b</b>) comparison with literature results [<a href="#B21-materials-18-00015" class="html-bibr">21</a>].</p>
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<p>Tensile failure modes of hydraulic concrete with different aggregate gradations.</p>
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<p>Aggregate gradation effect on the dynamic tensile strength of hydraulic concrete.</p>
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<p>The coupled effect of aggregate gradation and strain rate on dynamic tensile strength: (<b>a</b>) strain rate effect for different aggregate gradations; (<b>b</b>) comparison with literature results [<a href="#B21-materials-18-00015" class="html-bibr">21</a>].</p>
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<p>Interface effect of hydraulic concrete: (<b>a</b>) dynamic compressive strength; (<b>b</b>) interface coefficient for dynamic compressive strength.</p>
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<p>Interface effect of hydraulic concrete: (<b>a</b>) dynamic tensile strength; (<b>b</b>) interface coefficient for dynamic tensile strength.</p>
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20 pages, 4103 KiB  
Review
Nanotherapeutic and Nano–Bio Interface for Regeneration and Healing
by Rajiv Kumar, Chinenye Adaobi Igwegbe and Shri Krishna Khandel
Biomedicines 2024, 12(12), 2927; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines12122927 - 23 Dec 2024
Abstract
Wound and injury healing processes are intricate and multifaceted, involving a sequence of events from coagulation to scar tissue formation. Effective wound management is crucial for achieving favorable clinical outcomes. Understanding the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying wound healing, inflammation, and regeneration is [...] Read more.
Wound and injury healing processes are intricate and multifaceted, involving a sequence of events from coagulation to scar tissue formation. Effective wound management is crucial for achieving favorable clinical outcomes. Understanding the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying wound healing, inflammation, and regeneration is essential for developing innovative therapeutics. This review explored the interplay of cellular and molecular processes contributing to wound healing, focusing on inflammation, innervation, angiogenesis, and the role of cell surface adhesion molecules. Additionally, it delved into the significance of calcium signaling in skeletal muscle regeneration and its implications for regenerative medicine. Furthermore, the therapeutic targeting of cellular senescence for long-term wound healing was discussed. The integration of cutting-edge technologies, such as quantitative imaging and computational modeling, has revolutionized the current approach of wound healing dynamics. The review also highlighted the role of nanotechnology in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, particularly in the development of nanomaterials and nano–bio tools for promoting wound regeneration. Moreover, emerging nano–bio interfaces facilitate the efficient transport of biomolecules crucial for regeneration. Overall, this review provided insights into the cellular and molecular mechanisms of wound healing and regeneration, emphasizing the significance of interdisciplinary approaches and innovative technologies in advancing regenerative therapies. Through harnessing the potential of nanoparticles, bio-mimetic matrices, and scaffolds, regenerative medicine offers promising avenues for restoring damaged tissues with unparalleled precision and efficacy. This pursuit marks a significant departure from traditional approaches, offering promising avenues for addressing longstanding challenges in cellular and tissue repair, thereby significantly contributing to the advancement of regenerative medicine. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Materials for Biomedical Engineering and Regenerative Medicine)
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<p>Examples: The processes by which wound injuries heal. VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor), PDGF (platelet-derived growth factor), TNF-α (tumor necrosis factor alpha) IL-8 (interleukin 8), and FGF (fibroblast growth factor) are examples of growth factors that are transforming growth factor alpha. Reprinted (adapted) with permission from Huang et al. [<a href="#B69-biomedicines-12-02927" class="html-bibr">69</a>].</p>
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<p>A graphic illustration of the interactions between proteins and NPs, as well as any possible modifications to protein structure on the NP’s surface. Protein function and NP destiny in vivo may be impacted by the NP-induced conformational changes in proteins that reveal cryptic binding sites. Reprinted (adapted) with permission from Bashiri et al. [<a href="#B85-biomedicines-12-02927" class="html-bibr">85</a>].</p>
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<p>The study suggests that intelligent nanoparticle designs can enhance precision medication effectiveness and expedite clinical translation by overcoming biological barriers and improving distribution strategies. Reprinted (adapted) with permission from Wen et al. [<a href="#B103-biomedicines-12-02927" class="html-bibr">103</a>].</p>
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<p>Senescence is therapeutically targeted for long-term wound healing. Senescent cells build up in wounds that heal slowly over time, causing inflammation and inadequate healing. Senescence can be targeted in the following ways: (<b>A</b>) to induce apoptosis by blocking pro-survival pathways with BCL inhibitors and broad spectrum drugs (e.g., quercetin); (<b>B</b>) to target senescent cell receptors with chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells, or to modulate the expression of natural killer (NK) cell receptors NKG2A and NKG2D to increase clearance; (<b>C</b>) to reduce NF-κB-mediated inflammation and bystander senescence by using Metformin or other SASP inhibitors; and (<b>D</b>) to inhibit receptors known to potentiate wound senescence (e.g., CXCR2). Bad results are indicated by red arrows and left panels, green arrows/right panels = positive outcomes, MΦ = macrophage, senescent cells = blue cells and therapeutic intervention = blue arrows. Reprinted (adapted) with permission from Wilkinson and Hardman [<a href="#B134-biomedicines-12-02927" class="html-bibr">134</a>].</p>
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<p>The progressive biological hurdles that nanoparticles must overcome for precise drug administration are covered in this study, with a focus on the significance of designing smarter NPs for increased efficacy and quicker clinical translation. Reprinted (adapted) with permission from (Waheed, Li, Zhang, Chiarini, Armato and Wu [<a href="#B155-biomedicines-12-02927" class="html-bibr">155</a>]).</p>
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19 pages, 1944 KiB  
Article
siRNA Treatment Enhances Collagen Fiber Formation in Tissue-Engineered Meniscus via Transient Inhibition of Aggrecan Production
by Serafina G. Lopez, Lara A. Estroff and Lawrence J. Bonassar
Bioengineering 2024, 11(12), 1308; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering11121308 - 23 Dec 2024
Abstract
The complex collagen network of the native meniscus and the gradient of the density and alignment of this network through the meniscal enthesis is essential for the proper mechanical function of these tissues. This architecture is difficult to recapitulate in tissue-engineered replacement strategies. [...] Read more.
The complex collagen network of the native meniscus and the gradient of the density and alignment of this network through the meniscal enthesis is essential for the proper mechanical function of these tissues. This architecture is difficult to recapitulate in tissue-engineered replacement strategies. Prenatally, the organization of the collagen fiber network is established and aggrecan content is minimal. In vitro, fibrochondrocytes (FCCs) produce proteoglycans and associated glycosaminoglycan (GAG) chains early in culture, which can inhibit collagen fiber formation during the maturation of tissue-engineered menisci. Thus, it would be beneficial to both specifically and temporarily block deposition of proteoglycans early in culture. In this study, we transiently inhibited aggrecan production by meniscal fibrochondrocytes using siRNA in collagen gel-based tissue-engineered constructs. We evaluated the effect of siRNA treatment on the formation of collagen fibrils and bulk and microscale tensile properties. Specific inhibition of aggrecan production by fibrochondrocytes via siRNA was successful both in 2D monolayer cell culture and 3D tissue culture. This inhibition during early maturation of these in vitro constructs increased collagen fibril diameter by more than 2-fold. This increase in fibril diameter allowed these tissues to distribute strains more effectively at the local level, particularly at the interface of the bone and soft tissue. These data show that siRNA can be used to modulate the ECM to improve collagen fiber formation and mechanical properties in tissue-engineered constructs, and that a transient decrease in aggrecan promotes the formation of a more robust fiber network. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Regenerative Engineering)
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<p>(<b>A</b>) Phase contrast (left) and fluorescence (right) images of siGLO monolayer cell culture at day 3. (Scale bars = 200 µm) (<b>B</b>) GAG production of FCCs transfected with ACAN siRNA (light pink triangles), siGLO (dark pink triangles), Lipofectamine (red circles), or untransfected controls (black circles) in media over 6 days in 2D culture (<b>C</b>) Hydroxyproline production of FCCs transfected with ACAN siRNA, siGLO, Lipofectamine, or untransfected controls in media over 6 days in 2D culture. Analyzed using 1-way ANOVA with Tukey’s multiple comparisons test (* = <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05).</p>
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<p>(<b>A</b>) Fluorescence images of siGLO 2D monolayer culture at 3, 9, 12, and 30 days of culture. (<b>B</b>) GAG production after 12 or 30 days in 3D tissue culture (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 3–4). (<b>C</b>) Hydroxyproline production after 12 or 30 days in 3D tissue culture (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 3–4) (<b>D</b>) Representative SHG images of constructs cultured for 30 days (scale bar = 100 µm). White arrows indicate fibers with larger diameters. (<b>E</b>) Quantitative analysis of fiber diameter in meniscus constructs (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 3) at 30 days of culture. Analyzed using 1-way ANOVA with Tukey’s multiple comparisons test (* = <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05, ** = <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01).</p>
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<p>Polarized light micrographs stained with picrosirius red. Bone plugs can be seen on top of the images, displaying a more orange and yellow coloring. Soft gel can be seen below the bone plugs with birefringence of collagen fibers displayed in green and yellow (white arrows indicate increased birefringence on edges of siACAN construct). More oriented and thicker fibers display increased birefringence in yellow and slightly orange colors. (All scale bars = 1 mm).</p>
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<p>(<b>A</b>) Representative SEM images of critical point dried linear meniscal enthesis constructs cultured for 30 days. White arrows indicate regions containing thicker collagen fibril bundles. (<b>B</b>) Quantitative analysis of fiber diameter in linear meniscal enthesis constructs from SEM images (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 3–4) at 30 days of culture (** = <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01, *** = <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001). (<b>C</b>) Quantitative analysis of fiber alignment in linear meniscal enthesis constructs from SEM images (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 3–4) Dashed line indicates average alignment index found in native menisci (1.76 ± 0.21) (** = <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01, *** = <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001).</p>
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<p>Tensile properties of meniscal enthesis constructs (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 4–8). (<b>A</b>) Ultimate load. (<b>B</b>) Toughness. (<b>C</b>) Young’s modulus. (<b>D</b>) Ultimate tensile strength. Statistical error bars are ± standard deviation. Analyzed using 1-way ANOVA with Tukey’s multiple comparisons test.</p>
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<p>(<b>A</b>) Representative local strain (ε<sub>yy</sub>) maps of control, Lipofectamine-treated, siGLO-treated, or siACAN-treated tissue-engineered meniscal enthesis constructs at 15% bulk strain. Scale bars = 2 mm. Fluorescent confocal images were taken at every 1% strain. Local strains were calculated based on displacements tracked within a selected region of interested using MATLAB’s NCorr program. Local strains are visually represented using the color bar on the right. (<b>B</b>) Maximum strains at the 95th percentile calculated from local strain maps (ε<sub>yy</sub>) at 15% bulk strain (<span class="html-italic">n =</span> 4–5) (<b>C</b>). Correlation analysis between 95th percentile maximum local strains and matched fibril diameter from constructs analyzed using SEM. (* = <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05, ** = <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01).</p>
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<p>Means of Gaussian curves fitted to strain histograms from untransfected control, Lipofectamine control, siGLO Red control, and siACAN constructs at 15% applied strain. Inset shows a representative confocal elastography image overlayed with a strain map. Underneath, a histogram of strains fitted to two Gaussian curves shows that the first Gaussian curve describes the strains in the bulk tissue and the second describes the higher strain concentrations found at the interface of the bone plug and soft tissue region. Log transformations were taken of these data and analyzed using 1-way ANOVA with Tukey’s multiple comparisons test (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 4–5) (* = <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt;0.05).</p>
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27 pages, 15561 KiB  
Article
Carbon-Negative Nano-TiO2-Modified Photocatalytic Cementitious Composites: Removal of Airborne Pollutants (NOx and O3) and Its Impact on CO2 Footprint
by Maciej Kalinowski, Karol Chilmon and Wioletta Jackiewicz-Rek
Coatings 2024, 14(12), 1607; https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings14121607 - 23 Dec 2024
Abstract
This study explores the development and performance of photocatalytic cementitious composites modified with nano-TiO2 to address urban air quality and sustainability challenges. Nine mortar series were prepared, incorporating binders with varying carbon footprints and mass contents across different series. The interplay between [...] Read more.
This study explores the development and performance of photocatalytic cementitious composites modified with nano-TiO2 to address urban air quality and sustainability challenges. Nine mortar series were prepared, incorporating binders with varying carbon footprints and mass contents across different series. The interplay between the fundamental (abrasion resistance) and functional (air purification efficiency) properties of the composites’ surfaces and interfaces was investigated. The photocatalytic removal of airborne pollutants, specifically nitrogen oxides (NOx) and ozone (O3), was evaluated under simulated environmental conditions. The variations in binder composition influenced the composites’ overall initial carbon footprint and air purification efficiency. The assessment revealed a possible net decrease in carbon emissions over the life cycle of the composite due to the removal of ozone (greenhouse gas) and its precursor—NOx, highlighting the potential of photocatalytic cementitious composites for dual environmental benefits in an urban environment, emphasizing the critical role of surface and interface engineering in achieving carbon-negative composites. Full article
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<p>Research framework; *—type of binder used in the study, either CEM I 42.5R or CEM II/B-S 42.5R.</p>
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<p>Laboratory setup for determining the efficiency of air purification from NOx and O<sub>3.</sub> * MFM—mass flow controller module.</p>
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<p>A schematic representation of the test procedure for the NOx removal rate.</p>
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<p>A schematic representation of the test procedure for the O<sub>3</sub> removal rate.</p>
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<p>(<b>a</b>) Grain size distribution of binders and quartz powder used in the study; (<b>b</b>) TEM micrograph of a quartz filler grain (of regular/angular surface morphology). TEM analysis was performed on copper grids covered with a carbon film. (Microscope: TEM Tecnai TF 20 X-TWIN (FEI Company, Hillsboro, OR, USA). Parameters: EDAX; voltage, 200 kV; the STEM images were collected using the HAADF detector.)</p>
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<p>TEM micrographs of nano-TiO<sub>2</sub> photocatalytic materials (of regular/spherical surface morphology): (<b>a</b>) TiO<sub>2</sub>(P)—first-generation photocatalyst; (<b>b</b>) TiO<sub>2</sub>(K)—second-generation photocatalyst. TEM analysis was performed on copper grids covered with a carbon film. (Microscope: TEM Tecnai TF 20 X-TWIN. Parameters: EDAX; voltage, 200 kV; the STEM images were collected using the HAADF detector.)</p>
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<p>(<b>a</b>) Flexural strength. (<b>b</b>) Compressive strength of mortars investigated in the study after 2 and 28 days of curing as a function of the binder-to-filler ratio and percentage mass content of the CEM II/B-S 42.5R binder.</p>
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<p>The abrasion wear depth of mortars investigated in the study calculated based on abrasion resistance tests conducted on the Bohme disk.</p>
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<p>The photocatalytic removal rate of nitric oxides (NO) and the generation rate of NO<sub>2</sub> under investigated light conditions for mortars investigated in the study; (<b>a</b>)—under visible light; (<b>b</b>) under UV-a light; (<b>c</b>) under combined light.</p>
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<p>The photocatalytic removal rate of nitric oxides (NO) and the generation rate of NO<sub>2</sub> under investigated light conditions for mortars investigated in the study; (<b>a</b>)—under visible light; (<b>b</b>) under UV-a light; (<b>c</b>) under combined light.</p>
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<p>The photocatalytic removal rate of ozone (O<sub>3</sub>) under combined light irradiation conditions calculated for mortars investigated in the study.</p>
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<p>Binarized EDS mappings and corresponding heatmaps illustrating the TiO<sub>2</sub> distribution on the photoactive surfaces of (<b>a</b>) the PCM-3 sample and (<b>b</b>) the PCM-6 sample (Abbreviations: MtiC—Mean TiO<sub>2</sub> coverage).</p>
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<p>Probability density distribution for the log-normal distribution of σ-values in a range adopted in the study, (<b>a</b>)—for σ-values between 0.25 and 2.00; (<b>b</b>)—for σ-values between 3.00 and 10.00.</p>
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<p>Modeled yearly NO<sub>2</sub> and O<sub>3</sub> removal rates according to a log-normal model simulation distribution with four highlighted analyzed model parameters (sum of 4380 simulated hourly removal rates) and histograms of hourly removal rates for (<b>a</b>) favorable environmental conditions (σ = 0.50); (<b>b</b>) normal environmental conditions (σ = 2.25); (<b>c</b>) unfavorable environmental conditions (σ = 5.0); and (<b>d</b>) extremely unfavorable environmental conditions (σ = 10.0).</p>
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<p>Surfaces generated from regression Equations (3)–(6) illustrating the relationship between the content of CEM II/B-S in the binder, the binder-to-filler ratio (b/f), and the Annual Removal Rate under (<b>a</b>) Extremely Unfavorable Conditions, (<b>b</b>) Unfavorable Conditions, (<b>c</b>) Normal Conditions, and (<b>d</b>) Favorable Conditions.</p>
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<p>Surfaces generated from regression Equations (3)–(6) illustrating the relationship between the content of CEM II/B-S in the binder, the binder-to-filler ratio (b/f), and the Annual Removal Rate under (<b>a</b>) Extremely Unfavorable Conditions, (<b>b</b>) Unfavorable Conditions, (<b>c</b>) Normal Conditions, and (<b>d</b>) Favorable Conditions.</p>
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33 pages, 22828 KiB  
Article
Comparison of Two Fourier-Based Methods for Simulating Inlet Distortion Unsteady Flows in Transonic Compressors
by Lei Wu, Pengcheng Du and Fangfei Ning
Aerospace 2024, 11(12), 1050; https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11121050 - 22 Dec 2024
Viewed by 181
Abstract
The aerodynamic performance of transonic compressors, particularly the stall margin, is significantly influenced by inlet distortion. While time-marching methods accurately simulate such unsteady flows, they can be time-consuming. To enhance the computational efficiency, two Fourier-based methods are proposed in this paper: the time-accurate [...] Read more.
The aerodynamic performance of transonic compressors, particularly the stall margin, is significantly influenced by inlet distortion. While time-marching methods accurately simulate such unsteady flows, they can be time-consuming. To enhance the computational efficiency, two Fourier-based methods are proposed in this paper: the time-accurate method with interface filtering and the time–space collocation (TSC) method. The time-accurate method with interface filtering ignores the rotor–stator interaction effects, enabling a larger time step and faster convergence. In contrast, the TSC method accounts for harmonics of conservative variables and transforms the unsteady simulation into multiple steady-state calculations, thereby reducing computational costs. The two Fourier-based methods are validated using NASA Stage 67 and a two-stage transonic fan. Near the peak efficiency point, the results from both methods closely match that of URANS simulation and experimental data. The time-accurate method with interface filtering demonstrates a speed enhancement of 4 to 5 times as a result of a reduction in the iteration steps. In contrast, the TSC method exhibits a speed improvement of at least 20 times in two specific cases, attributable to the significantly smaller mesh size and iteration steps employed in the TSC method compared to the URANS method. Near the stall point, more harmonics for inlet distortion are necessary in TSC simulation to accurately capture flow separation. In the two-stage transonic fan simulations, the strong rotor–stator interaction effects lead to deviations from the URANS simulation; nevertheless, the Fourier-based simulations accurately reflect the trend of the stall margin under total pressure distortion. Overall, the Fourier-based methods show promising potential for engineering applications in estimating the performance degradation of compressors subjected to inlet distortion. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Aeronautics)
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<p>Temporal and spatial waves in turbomachinery.</p>
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<p>The periodic boundaries and dummy cells.</p>
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<p>NASA stage 67.</p>
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<p>Meridional view of NASA stage 67.</p>
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<p>Computational mesh at 50% span.</p>
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<p>The 120 deg total pressure distortion pattern.</p>
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<p>Performance results of the different grids.</p>
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<p>Performance of the rotor-alone configuration under uniform inlet conditions: (<b>a</b>) corrected mass flow versus total pressure ratio; (<b>b</b>) corrected mass flow versus isentropic efficiency. Fidalgo, et al., 2012 [<a href="#B12-aerospace-11-01050" class="html-bibr">12</a>].</p>
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<p>Cumulative fluctuation energy spectra of kinetic energy and static pressure downstream of the rotor.</p>
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<p>Convergence history of the isentropic efficiency in URANS and Filtering simulations.</p>
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<p>Instantaneous entropy distribution at 50% span: (<b>a</b>) instantaneous result of the URANS simulation; (<b>b</b>) Filtering 1100 simulation; (<b>c</b>) Filtering 220 simulation; and (<b>d</b>) Filtering 110 simulation.</p>
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<p>Time-averaged total pressure and total temperature distributions at St2.</p>
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<p>Modal amplitudes of the time-averaged total pressure.</p>
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<p>Different order Fourier reconstructions of the inlet square total pressure distortion.</p>
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<p>Comparisons of stage performance parameters in different simulation cases: (<b>a</b>) corrected mass flow rate versus total pressure ratio; (<b>b</b>) corrected mass flow rate versus isentropic efficiency. Zhang, et al., 2020 [<a href="#B13-aerospace-11-01050" class="html-bibr">13</a>].</p>
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<p>Residual of density in TSC simulations.</p>
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<p>Convergence history of the isentropic efficiency in URANS and TSC simulations.</p>
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<p>Instantaneous total pressure distribution at mid-span: (<b>a</b>) URANS simulation; (<b>b</b>) Filtering 220 simulation; (<b>c</b>) Harmonics 5 simulation; and (<b>d</b>) Harmonics 9 simulation.</p>
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<p>Total pressure distribution upstream of rotor (St1) at mid-span.</p>
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<p>Modal amplitudes of the total pressure upstream of rotor (St1) at mid-span.</p>
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<p>Absolute swirl angle distribution upstream of rotor (St1) at mid-span.</p>
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<p>Total pressure, total temperature, and absolute swirl angle distribution downstream of rotor (St2) at mid-span.</p>
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<p>Modal amplitudes of the total pressure downstream of rotor (St2) at mid-span.</p>
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<p>Modal amplitudes of the total temperature downstream of rotor (St2) at mid-span.</p>
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<p>Total pressure, total temperature, and absolute swirl angle distribution downstream of stator (St3) at mid-span.</p>
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<p>Axial velocity distribution at the outlet of stator blade: (<b>a</b>) time-averaged result of URANS simulation; (<b>b</b>) Harmonics 5 simulation; (<b>c</b>) Harmonics 7 simulation; (<b>d</b>) Harmonics 9 simulation.</p>
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<p>Configuration of a two-stage transonic fan.</p>
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<p>Inlet total pressure distortion pattern.</p>
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<p>Inlet total pressure distortion at 70% span.</p>
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<p>Comparisons of fan performance parameters in different cases: (<b>a</b>) normalized mass flow rate versus total pressure ratio; (<b>b</b>) normalized mass flow rate versus isentropic efficiency.</p>
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<p>Total pressure and total temperature distributions downstream of R1: (<b>a</b>) instantaneous results of the URANS simulation; (<b>b</b>) time-averaged results of the URANS simulation; (<b>c</b>) instantaneous results of the Filtering simulation; and (<b>d</b>) instantaneous results of the Harmonics 5 simulation.</p>
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<p>Total pressure and total temperature distributions downstream of R2: (<b>a</b>) instantaneous results of the URANS simulation; (<b>b</b>) time-averaged results of the URANS simulation; (<b>c</b>) instantaneous results of the Filtering simulation; and (<b>d</b>) Harmonics 5 simulation.</p>
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<p>Instantaneous static pressure at 90% span of the URANS simulation (operating point U2).</p>
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<p>Cumulative fluctuation energy spectra of kinetic energy and static pressure downstream of each blade row in steady-state simulation.</p>
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<p>Time-averaged axial velocity at 90% span downstream of S1.</p>
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<p>Modal amplitudes of time-averaged axial velocity at 90% span downstream of S1.</p>
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<p>Circumferentially averaged total pressure ratio.</p>
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<p>Circumferentially averaged loading coefficient of R2.</p>
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<p>Axial velocity at 90% span: (<b>a</b>) time-averaged result of the URANS simulation; (<b>b</b>) time-averaged result of the Filtering simulation; and (<b>c</b>) Harmonics 5 simulation. (The dashed lines represent the boundaries of the distorted region).</p>
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25 pages, 4567 KiB  
Article
Tuning of PID Controller in PLC-Based Automatic Voltage Regulator System Using Adaptive Artificial Bee Colony–Fuzzy Logic Algorithm
by Hüseyin Altınkaya and Dursun Ekmekci
Electronics 2024, 13(24), 5039; https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13245039 - 21 Dec 2024
Viewed by 305
Abstract
The voltage control of synchronous generators, particularly under varying load conditions, remains a significant and complex challenge in the field of engineering. Although various control methods have been implemented for automatic voltage regulator (AVR) systems to control the terminal voltage of synchronous generators, [...] Read more.
The voltage control of synchronous generators, particularly under varying load conditions, remains a significant and complex challenge in the field of engineering. Although various control methods have been implemented for automatic voltage regulator (AVR) systems to control the terminal voltage of synchronous generators, the PID-based control method continues to be one of the most basic and widely used approaches. Determining the optimal values for the Kp, Ki, and Kd values is essential to ensuring efficient and rapid performance in a PID controller. This study presents PLC-based PID controller tuning using an adaptive artificial bee colony–fuzzy logic (aABC-FL) approach for voltage control in a micro-hydro power plant installed as an experimental setup. The real-time control and monitoring of the system was conducted using an S7-1200 programmable logic controller (PLC) integrated with a totally integrated automation (TIA) portal interface and a SCADA screen. The aABC-Fuzzy design was developed using the MATLAB/Simulink platform, with PLC-MATLAB communication established through OPC UA and the KEPServerEX interface. The results obtained from experiments conducted under different load conditions showed that the proposed aABC-FL PID significantly minimized settling time and overshoot compared to the classical PLC-PID. Additionally, the proposed method not only provided a good dynamic response but also proved to be robust and reliable for real physical AVR systems. Full article
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<p>Experimental setup.</p>
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<p>Block diagram of the system.</p>
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<p>Voltage control flowchart.</p>
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<p>PID block diagram of voltage control.</p>
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<p>Compact PID in TIA Portal.</p>
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<p>Default (initial) values of PID parameters.</p>
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<p>PID parameter values calculated by PLC.</p>
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<p>Block schema of the aABC-fuzzy-PID.</p>
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<p>Structure of the FL side.</p>
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<p>Structure of the solution vector used in the metaheuristic side of the method.</p>
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<p>Loading experiment: 0–500 W.</p>
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<p>Load shedding experiment: 500–0 W.</p>
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<p>Loading experiment: 0–750 W.</p>
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<p>Load shedding experiment: 750–0 W.</p>
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<p>Loading experiment: 0–1000 W.</p>
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<p>Load shedding experiment: 1000–0 W.</p>
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<p>Loading experiment: 0–2000 W (synch).</p>
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<p>Load shedding experiment: 2000–0 W.</p>
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22 pages, 6141 KiB  
Article
Research on Service-Oriented Sharing and Computing Framework of Geographic Data for Geographic Modeling and Simulation
by Jin Wang, Lingkai Shi, Xuan Zhang, Kai Xu, Zaiyang Ma, Yongning Wen and Min Chen
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(24), 11983; https://doi.org/10.3390/app142411983 - 20 Dec 2024
Viewed by 506
Abstract
Geographic data are the foundation of geographic model construction, and any stage of their acquisition, processing, and analysis may have an impact on the efficiency and quality of geographic modeling and simulation. With the advent of the era of big data, a large [...] Read more.
Geographic data are the foundation of geographic model construction, and any stage of their acquisition, processing, and analysis may have an impact on the efficiency and quality of geographic modeling and simulation. With the advent of the era of big data, a large number of data resources are generated in the field of geographic information. However, due to the heterogeneity of geographic data and the security of data usage, massive geographic data resources are difficult to fully explore and utilize, resulting in the formation of data islands. This paper proposes a service-oriented geographic data-sharing and computing framework, which provides users with a complete set of geographic data access and application processes (such as data acquisition, processing, configuration, etc.), so as to reduce the difficulty of using data and improve the efficiency of data sharing. The framework mainly consists of three core components: (1) the “Data service container” can publish data resources as data services to provide a consistent data access interface; (2) the “Workspace” provides a series of methods and tools for users to develop data-computing solutions; and (3) the “Data-computing engine” is responsible for performing computing tasks such as data processing and configuration. Finally, a case of runoff simulation using the SWAT model is designed, in which the whole process of data sharing, acquisition, calculation, and application is realized, so as to verify the validity of the proposed framework. Full article
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<p>Design of the proposed data-sharing and computing framework.</p>
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<p>Example of using UDX to describe hydrological data.</p>
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<p>The process of data service generation.</p>
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<p>The process of data service invoking.</p>
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<p>Design of workspace.</p>
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<p>The XML expression of a data-computing solution.</p>
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<p>The XML description of data-computing tasks.</p>
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<p>The execution process of data-computing tasks.</p>
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<p>The implementation of the prototype system.</p>
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<p>Raw data of the rainfall station and its UDX description.</p>
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<p>List of data-processing services in the data service container.</p>
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<p>Data configuration in the workspace.</p>
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<p>The output of the SWAT model and its visualization.</p>
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19 pages, 6832 KiB  
Article
Optimization and Standardization of Stable De-Epidermized Dermis (DED) Models for Functional Evaluation of Cutaneous Cell Therapies
by Xi Chen, Corinne Scaletta, Zhifeng Liao, Alexis Laurent, Lee Ann Applegate and Nathalie Hirt-Burri
Bioengineering 2024, 11(12), 1297; https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering11121297 - 20 Dec 2024
Viewed by 307
Abstract
The human skin is a remarkable organ capable of extensive regeneration, especially after severe injuries such as burns and related wounds. The de-epidermized dermis (DED) model has become a valuable in vitro tool for skin regeneration studies, particularly for testing the mechanism of [...] Read more.
The human skin is a remarkable organ capable of extensive regeneration, especially after severe injuries such as burns and related wounds. The de-epidermized dermis (DED) model has become a valuable in vitro tool for skin regeneration studies, particularly for testing the mechanism of action and the efficacy of clinical cutaneous cell therapies. To further improve the quality and robustness of these applications, our study focused on optimizing and standardizing DED tissue preparation and storage, enhancing its effectiveness for clinical testing. Therefore, we optimized the air-liquid interfacial culture medium composition by simplifying the historical formulation without compromising keratinocyte (therapeutic cell model) viability or proliferation. Furthermore, we investigated the impacts of adding burn wound exudates in the model by focusing on cell behavior for enhanced translational significance. The results revealed notable differences in keratinocyte adhesion and proliferation between burn wound exudates collected at the early stages and late stages of acute patient treatment, providing new information on a possible therapeutic window to apply cell therapies on burn patients. Generally, this study reported a robust method for the preclinical in vitro assessment of keratinocyte-based cutaneous cell therapies using DED models. Overall, the study underscored the importance of using in vitro models with enhanced translational relevance to better predict the clinical effects of cutaneous cell therapies in burn patient populations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Biomedical Engineering and Biomaterials)
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<p>(<b>A</b>) Abdominal tissue was treated to remove the adipose tissue with surgical scissors and was cut into strips. (<b>B</b>) Tissue strips were transferred to 50 mL Falcon tubes, which were filled with NaCl 1 M. After a 24 h/37 °C incubation phase, the epidermis was separated from the dermis with forceps. Each tissue strip was then cut into individual samples of ~1.5 cm<sup>2</sup> and placed into Falcon tubes with 1× PBS + 1% P/S. The solution was changed 2–3 times before processing for long-term storage. (<b>C</b>) Description of the DED model with the air–liquid interface. A sterile perforated metal support was positioned at the bottom of a 6-well plate. The DED was first incubated in complete culture medium for at least 2 h and carefully transferred onto the support, papillary side up. Selected culture media (~4 mL/well) were added to ensure nutrient perfusion. A 6 mm glass insert was gently placed in the center of the DED, allowing for 100–200 µL of cell seeding. Constructs (i.e., DED + cells) were maintained for 4 days at 37 °C, 5% CO<sub>2</sub>. Then, the glass inserts were removed, and the constructs were incubated for 7 more days. Cellular presence and surface repartition were assessed by MTT staining of the whole construct and by H&amp;E staining of 7 µm histological sections. DED, de-epidermized dermis; PBS, phosphate-buffered saline; MTT, 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl) 2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide.</p>
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<p>Macroscopic images of an MTT assay for whole DED tissue samples, where media combinations were compared. The top medium (T) was used to fill the glass insert positioned on the DED. The bottom medium (B) was the DED culture medium. (<b>A</b>) Serum-free medium on both top and bottom. (<b>B</b>) mGreen’s medium on the bottom, and serum-free medium on the top. (<b>C</b>) Control sample with PBS on the bottom and complete medium on the top. (<b>D</b>) Serum-free medium is on the bottom, with complete medium on the top. (<b>E</b>) mGreen’s medium on the bottom, with complete medium on the top. DED, de-epidermized dermis; MTT, 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl) 2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide.</p>
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<p>The effect of the conservation temperature on DED prior to recellularization with HaCaT cells (i.e., with mGreen’s medium for the air–liquid culture) was evaluated by MTT staining and histological analysis of H&amp;E tissue sections. The MTT assay stains viable and metabolically active keratinocytes and reveals the cell distribution on the DED macroscopically. Histological H&amp;E staining allows for morphological analysis of the stratified epidermal layer with respect to cellular adhesion and migration within the dermal structure. The figure shows DED cross-sections embedded in paraffin, cut at 7 µm, and stained with H&amp;E. Storage was performed at (<b>A</b>) 4 °C for six weeks; (<b>B</b>) −20 °C for six weeks; (<b>C</b>) −80 °C for six weeks; (<b>D</b>) 4 °C for five years. (<b>E</b>) Control group with PBS alone and no nutritive media, stored at 4 °C for six weeks. Upper right corners = MTT staining in macroscopic imaging. Scale bars = 50 µm. DED, de-epidermized dermis; MTT, 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl) 2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide; PBS, phosphate-buffered saline.</p>
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<p>Results of culture media composition screening. (<b>C</b>) Control group. (<b>1</b>–<b>10</b>) Medium formula N.1–N.10. (<b>G</b>) mGreen’s medium. DED was evaluated macroscopically by MTT and histological analysis of H&amp;E tissue sections. The MTT assay stains viable and metabolically active keratinocytes and reveals the cell distribution on the DED macroscopically. Histological H&amp;E staining allows for morphological analysis of the stratified epidermal layer with respect to cellular adhesion and migration within the dermal structure. H&amp;E results and MTT results (i.e., upper right corners). The absence of specific medium components is represented by dark gray highlighting. Scale bars = 100 µm. C, complete medium; CT, cholera toxin; E, EGF; EGF, epidermal growth factor; G, mGreen’s medium; H, hydrocortisone; I, insulin; MTT, 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl) 2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide.</p>
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<p>Immunohistochemical analysis of collagen IV, laminin 1, and K14 on DED constructs maintained in mGreen’s medium and the new simplified medium N°8. (<b>A</b>) Control group. (<b>B</b>) New simplified medium N°8. (<b>C</b>) mGreen’s medium. (<b>D</b>) Human skin control group. Scale bars = 20 µm. DED, de-epidermized dermis.</p>
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<p>H&amp;E staining and immunohistochemical analysis of collagen IV, laminin 1, and K14 of the DED constructs maintained with different burn wound exudates. (<b>A</b>) Early collection exudate group. (<b>B</b>) Late collection exudate group. Upper right corners = macroscopic images of tissues stained with MTT. Scale bars = 20 µm. DED, de-epidermized dermis.</p>
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39 pages, 22737 KiB  
Article
Comparative Research in the Field of the Parametric Effect of Lubricant Cavitation Initiation and Development on Friction and Wear in Piston Ring and Cylinder Liner Assemblies
by Polychronis Dellis
Lubricants 2024, 12(12), 460; https://doi.org/10.3390/lubricants12120460 - 20 Dec 2024
Viewed by 353
Abstract
This research follows closely previous findings in flow characteristics and phenomena that take place in the piston ring and cylinder liner interface during motoring and firing engine operation, and also compares results between different optical engine set-ups. Cavitation visualisation in a simulating lubrication [...] Read more.
This research follows closely previous findings in flow characteristics and phenomena that take place in the piston ring and cylinder liner interface during motoring and firing engine operation, and also compares results between different optical engine set-ups. Cavitation visualisation in a simulating lubrication single-ring test rig and oil transport and cavitation visualisation in custom made cylinder assemblies of optical engines are the tools used to quantify the transport process under the piston ring and cylinder liner. Simplification of the interface is an essential technique that enhances the researcher’s confidence in results interpretation. Engine complexity and severe oil starvation are impeding the analysis of the experimental results. Visualisation experiments constitute an effective way to test various lubricant types and assess their overall performance characteristics, including their properties and cavitation behaviour. The repeatability of the visualisation method establishes the parametric study effects and offers valuable experimental results. As a further step towards the lubricant composition effect, a link between the lubricant formulation and the operating conditions could be established as the oil performance is assessed with a view to its transport behaviour. Image processing is used to quantify the impact of cavitation on piston ring lubrication in conjunction with varied operating and lubricant parameters. The characteristics of the lubricant and the working environment have an impact on these types of cavities. Viscosity, cavitation, oil film thickness (OFT), lubricant shear-thinning characteristics and friction are all linked. Full article
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<p>Simulating single-ring test rig: (<b>a</b>) schematic; (<b>b</b>) the capacitance sensor used for MOFT measurements; (<b>c</b>) the capacitance, friction sensors, piston specimen and the oil jets that flood the piston ring and liner interface with lubricant; (<b>d</b>) schematic of the miniature pressure transducer as fitted on the liner specimen.</p>
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<p>Modified Kubota engine block with fitted window section [<a href="#B13-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">13</a>].</p>
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<p>PSA spark ignition engine: (<b>a</b>) side view; (<b>b</b>) top view [<a href="#B13-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">13</a>].</p>
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<p>Toyota engine—window layout [<a href="#B17-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">17</a>].</p>
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<p>Lubricant transport mechanisms in the piston assembly of a fired automotive engine [<a href="#B35-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">35</a>].</p>
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<p>Lister–Petter engine modifications, experimental set-up and drawings: (<b>a</b>) Lister–Petter engine with modified block on the dynamometer; (<b>b</b>) liner drawing details; (<b>c</b>) liner and block 3-D drawings; (<b>d</b>) Lister–Petter piston; (<b>e</b>) window drawing details; (<b>f</b>) modified engine drawing details; (<b>g</b>) photo of fitted windows; (<b>h</b>) engine visualisation experimental set-up; (<b>i</b>) camera visualisation set-up; (<b>j</b>) viewing windows, optical fibre probe and pressure transducer fittings in the modified liner [<a href="#B5-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">5</a>,<a href="#B25-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">25</a>].</p>
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<p>Lister–Petter engine modifications, experimental set-up and drawings: (<b>a</b>) Lister–Petter engine with modified block on the dynamometer; (<b>b</b>) liner drawing details; (<b>c</b>) liner and block 3-D drawings; (<b>d</b>) Lister–Petter piston; (<b>e</b>) window drawing details; (<b>f</b>) modified engine drawing details; (<b>g</b>) photo of fitted windows; (<b>h</b>) engine visualisation experimental set-up; (<b>i</b>) camera visualisation set-up; (<b>j</b>) viewing windows, optical fibre probe and pressure transducer fittings in the modified liner [<a href="#B5-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">5</a>,<a href="#B25-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">25</a>].</p>
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<p>Piston ring pack details for Lister–Petter PHW1 single-cylinder engine [<a href="#B5-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">5</a>].</p>
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<p>The Ricardo HYDRA optical engine: (<b>a</b>) new cylinder design and cooling details; (<b>b</b>) cut-out; (<b>c</b>) custom made quartz visualisation windows; (<b>d</b>) engine side view [<a href="#B9-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">9</a>].</p>
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<p>Upstroke cavitation images from (<b>a</b>–<b>l</b>) 15° crank angle (CA) to 28.2° CA [<a href="#B23-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">23</a>].</p>
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<p>Downstroke cavitation images from 0° crank angle (CA) to 360° CA [<a href="#B23-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">23</a>].</p>
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<p>Imaging at different CAs for the simulating test rig with the respective oil film pressure readings and different speed tests at 1159 N/m load [<a href="#B4-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">4</a>,<a href="#B5-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">5</a>].</p>
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<p>Imaging at different CAs for the simulating test rig with the respective oil film pressure readings and different load tests at 400 rpm [<a href="#B4-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">4</a>,<a href="#B5-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">5</a>].</p>
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<p>(<b>a</b>) Vaporous oil film pressure difference between upstroke and downstroke; (<b>b</b>) ring profile as measured by Talysurf surface profilometry [<a href="#B4-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">4</a>].</p>
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<p>Peak oil film pressure signals: (<b>a</b>) offset at different speeds; (<b>b</b>) different cavitation areas at different speeds; (<b>c</b>) cavitation reformation at different loads [<a href="#B27-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">27</a>].</p>
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<p>Peak oil film pressure signals: (<b>a</b>) offset at different speeds; (<b>b</b>) different cavitation areas at different speeds; (<b>c</b>) cavitation reformation at different loads [<a href="#B27-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">27</a>].</p>
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<p>Effect of varying speed and load on (<b>a</b>) cavitation initiation points, different CAs; (<b>b</b>) number of string cavities at mid-stroke [<a href="#B7-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">7</a>].</p>
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<p>Possible cavitation stages for different test cases and location of fibre probe as it travels on top of the piston ring specimen and the cavities: (<b>a</b>) over a lubricant striation at cycle No 1 at 90° CA; (<b>b</b>) over a cavity at cycle No 2 at 90° CA; (<b>c</b>) over a mixed lubricant string cavity region at cycle No 3 at 90° CA [<a href="#B7-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">7</a>].</p>
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<p>The effect of different lubricants’ properties on friction force peaks at 300 r/min, 971 N/m load, 70 °C at TDC [<a href="#B26-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">26</a>].</p>
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<p>Focus on BDC MOFT measurements and squeeze film shift: (<b>a</b>) for different temperatures, oil 6E, 400 r/min and 1159 N/m load; (<b>b</b>) for different lubricants at 600 r/min, 1159 N/m load and high temperature of 70 °C [<a href="#B26-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">26</a>].</p>
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<p>Images taken from the top window at various crank angles. Forms of string cavities are strongly supported by the findings. Camera is fitted 11.17cm from TDC: (<b>a</b>) 576° CA exhaust stroke, cycle A; (<b>b</b>) 576° CA exhaust stroke, cycle B; (<b>c</b>) 576° CA exhaust stroke, cycle C; (<b>d</b>) 576° CA exhaust stroke, cycle D; (<b>e</b>) 576° CA exhaust stroke, cycle E [<a href="#B5-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">5</a>].</p>
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<p>Image taken from the top window at 608.40° CA, exhaust stroke, camera fitted 9.17 cm from top edge, showing (<b>a</b>) oil starvation and surface change on the piston ring; (<b>b</b>) oil spouts extending the second piston land [<a href="#B5-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">5</a>].</p>
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<p>Image of 475.20° CA expansion stroke, camera at 9.17 cm from top edge, string cavities’ formation on top compression ring [<a href="#B5-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">5</a>].</p>
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<p>Images of 615.24° CA exhaust stroke, camera at 9.17 cm from top edge, second compression ring at two different engine cycles: (<b>a</b>) cycle A; (<b>b</b>) cycle B [<a href="#B5-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">5</a>].</p>
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<p>Top window anti-thrust side at 255.24° CA compression stroke, camera at 8.67 cm from top edge: (<b>a</b>) irregular string-shaped cavities, cycle A; (<b>b</b>) appearance of oil droplets on piston ring bottom side clearance, cycle B; (<b>c</b>) more irregular cavitation shapes, cycle C; and (<b>d</b>) another irregular cavity shape, cycle D [<a href="#B5-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">5</a>].</p>
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<p>Top window anti-thrust side: (<b>a</b>) 218.34° CA compression stroke, camera at 11.67 cm from top edge—second compression ring; (<b>b</b>) 218.34° CA compression stroke, camera at 8.67 cm from top edge—top compression ring [<a href="#B5-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">5</a>].</p>
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<p>Images of 124.20° CA induction stroke, camera at 16.07 cm from top edge; (<b>a</b>–<b>c</b>) bubbles on the side clearance of the piston ring; (<b>d</b>) shapes resembling string cavity [<a href="#B5-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">5</a>].</p>
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<p>Oil mist on the piston skirt, using the highest magnification lens: (<b>a</b>) 18° CA induction stroke, camera at 9.07 cm from top edge; (<b>b</b>) 48.60° CA induction stroke, camera at 9.07 cm from top edge; (<b>c</b>) 142.20° CA induction stroke, camera at 16.07 cm from top edge [<a href="#B5-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">5</a>].</p>
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<p>Schematic of the possible cavitation stages on the Lister–Petter engine: (<b>A</b>) fern-shaped cavities; (<b>B</b>) irregular fern growth; (<b>C</b>) string cavities [<a href="#B5-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">5</a>].</p>
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<p>Window–liner profile measurements, Lister liner anti-thrust side: (<b>a</b>) upper window, upper side (TDC); (<b>b</b>) upper side of lower window and liner limit; (<b>c</b>) lower side of upper window; and (<b>d</b>) lower side of lower window (BDC) [<a href="#B5-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">5</a>].</p>
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<p>Window–liner profile measurements, Lister liner anti-thrust side: (<b>a</b>) upper window, upper side (TDC); (<b>b</b>) upper side of lower window and liner limit; (<b>c</b>) lower side of upper window; and (<b>d</b>) lower side of lower window (BDC) [<a href="#B5-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">5</a>].</p>
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<p>Cavitation string measurements, length and width as derived from imaging: (<b>a</b>) single-ring simulating test rig and (<b>b</b>) single-cylinder motored Lister–Petter engine [<a href="#B5-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">5</a>]. Orange measurements are the piston ring width and compression ring groove width, blue measurements are the strings’ length and green measurements the strings’ width.</p>
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<p>Oil mist appearance on the surface of the top compression ring: (<b>a</b>) 44.28° CA, induction stroke 3.67 cm from top (no sign); (<b>b</b>) 403.92° CA, expansion stroke 3.67 cm from top edge; (<b>c</b>) 403.92° CA, expansion stroke 3.67 cm from top edge; and (<b>d</b>) 403.92° CA, expansion stroke 3.67 cm from top edge [<a href="#B5-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">5</a>].</p>
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<p>Image of 254.88° CA compression stroke camera at 8.67 cm from top edge.</p>
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<p>Image of 255.24° CA compression stroke, camera at 8.67 cm from top edge, cycle A.</p>
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<p>Image of 255.24° CA compression stroke, camera at 8.67 cm from top edge, cycle B.</p>
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<p>Image of 255.24° CA compression stroke, camera at 8.67 cm from top edge, cycle C.</p>
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<p>Cavities on compression ring upstroke: (<b>a</b>) at 30 °C and (<b>b</b>) at 40 °C, 800 rpm [<a href="#B9-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">9</a>]. Red highlighted area shows the cavitation area that covers the piston-ring and is calculated by the algorithm. Blue arrow shows upstroke piston movement.</p>
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<p>Cavitation images on top compression ring of the HYDRA engine motored tests during compression stroke, upstroke at 70 °C, at different speeds; (<b>a</b>) 208 r/min, (<b>b</b>) 800 r/min, (<b>c</b>) 1000 r/min; (<b>d</b>) 2000 r/min [<a href="#B9-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">9</a>]. Red highlighted area shows the cavitation area that covers the piston-ring and is calculated by the algorithm.</p>
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<p>High-pressure gasses act as a medium of the lubricant transport through the ring gaps towards the engine sump during motored tests: (<b>a</b>) 1000 rpm, 70 °C, 6° CA after TDC; (<b>b</b>) 1000 rpm, 70 °C, 6° CA after TDC; (<b>c</b>) 1000 rpm, 70 °C, 12° CA after TDC, higher magnification [<a href="#B8-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">8</a>]. Blue arrow shows downstroke piston movement and dotted red arrows show lubricant transport pathways towards the engine sump.</p>
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<p>Oil pumping at the second land [<a href="#B5-lubricants-12-00460" class="html-bibr">5</a>]. Black arrows show lubricant pumping process from ring side clearances in the top image as piston moves upstroke and in the bottom image as piston moves downstroke. The orange arrow shows transition from upstroke to downstroke.</p>
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37 pages, 8597 KiB  
Article
Evaluation and Characterization of Functionally Graded Adhesive Joints: Experimental and Numerical Analyses
by Yanan Zhang, Pedro Gálvez, Miguel Angel Martínez, Juana Abenojar and Magd Abdel Wahab
Polymers 2024, 16(24), 3561; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16243561 - 20 Dec 2024
Viewed by 307
Abstract
Epoxy resins have exhibited exceptional performance in engineering applications, particularly as a replacement for traditional mechanical joints in adhesive bonding. This study evaluates the suitability of two innovative adhesives, SikaPower®-1511 and SikaPower®-1548, in various graded configurations. The thermal curing [...] Read more.
Epoxy resins have exhibited exceptional performance in engineering applications, particularly as a replacement for traditional mechanical joints in adhesive bonding. This study evaluates the suitability of two innovative adhesives, SikaPower®-1511 and SikaPower®-1548, in various graded configurations. The thermal curing behavior of the adhesives was analyzed using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Shear tests and finite element simulations were employed to investigate the strength performance and interfacial stress distribution of four adhesive configurations, including single and graded joints in single lap adhesive joints. The results show that SikaPower®-1548 reveals a slower heat-curing rate and achieves an average shear limit load of 9 MPa, outperforming the more rigid SikaPower®-1511, which reaches 4 MPa. Ultimate load predictions indicate that the shear strength of the 1511-1548-1511 graded configuration is slightly lower than that of SikaPower®-1511, with a decrease of 8.86%. In contrast, the 1548-1511-1548 configuration demonstrates a significant improvement, achieving a 32.20% increase in shear strength, along with a 13.12% reduction in peel stress field intensity at the interface end and a 12.21% reduction in shear stress field intensity. Overall, the experimental and simulation results highlight the significant advantages of graded joints over traditional single joints in alleviating stress concentrations and enhancing joint strength. Additionally, the research confirms the potential of epoxy resins in advanced engineering applications, providing a reliable theoretical foundation and technical guidance for the design of graded adhesives. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epoxy Resin and Composites: Properties and Applications)
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Figure 1
<p>Diagram of Research Implementation.</p>
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<p>(<b>a</b>) Teflon mold with samples in manufacturing process, (<b>b</b>) samples of adhesive SikaPower<sup>®</sup>-1511 and (<b>c</b>) samples of adhesive SikaPower<sup>®</sup>-1548.</p>
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<p>Assembly of square steel prisms for adhesive bonding. Area (1): adhesive zone. Prism (2): support. Red arrow: placement of steel shim to achieve 0.2 mm thickness. Prism (3): stabilizes the assembly.</p>
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<p>Curing curves at different rates for SikaPower<sup>®</sup>-1511.</p>
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<p>Degree of conversion curves at different rates for (<b>a</b>) SikaPower<sup>®</sup>-1511 and (<b>b</b>) SikaPower<sup>®</sup>-1548.</p>
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<p>Activation energy curves by MFK for SikaPower<sup>®</sup>-1511 and SikaPower<sup>®</sup>-1548.</p>
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<p>FTIR spectra for component A, component B and mixture for (<b>a</b>) SikaPower<sup>®</sup>-1511 and (<b>b</b>) SikaPower<sup>®</sup>-1548.</p>
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<p>FTIR spectra of SikaPower<sup>®</sup>-1548 and SikaPower<sup>®</sup>-1511 after 72 h of curing.</p>
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<p>Representative tensile stress curves for SikaPower<sup>®</sup>-1548 and SikaPower<sup>®</sup>-1511.</p>
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<p>Representative shear strength curves for SikaPower<sup>®</sup>-1548, SikaPower<sup>®</sup>-1511 and graduated joints, with SikaPower<sup>®</sup>-1548 on the edges (1548-1511-1548) and SikaPower<sup>®</sup>-1511 on the edges (1511-1548-1511).</p>
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<p>Geometry, dimensions, boundary, and loading conditions of the single lap joint. The adhesive is located in the gray area.</p>
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<p>Local mesh refinement of the bonding interface in the lap joint.</p>
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<p>Traditional single-lap joints and graduated adhesive joints.</p>
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<p>Convergence analysis of peel stress (σ<sub>y</sub>) near the adhesive interface endpoint using SikaPower<sup>®</sup>-1511 adhesive under Pressure = 2 MPa.</p>
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<p>Stress distribution at the adhesive interface and within the adhesive layer of SikaPower<sup>®</sup>-1511. (<b>a</b>) Peel stress distribution; (<b>b</b>) Shear stress distribution. The gray area indicates the location of the adhesive, it is marked with a green eclipse.</p>
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<p>The maximum principal stress distribution of SikaPower<sup>®</sup>-1511 adhesive.</p>
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<p>Stress distribution at the adhesive interface of different resin epoxy adhesive combinations under Pressure = 2 MPa. Peel stress (<math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mrow> <mo mathvariant="normal">σ</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">y</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math>) for (<b>a</b>) 1511 and 1511-1548-1511 and (<b>b</b>) 1548 and 1548-1511-1548; Shear stress (τ) for (<b>c</b>) 1511 and 1511-1548-1511 and (<b>d</b>) 1548 and 1548-1511-1548.</p>
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<p>Stress distribution at the adhesive interface of different resin epoxy adhesive combinations under Pressure = Failure Strength. Peel stress (<math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mrow> <mo mathvariant="normal">σ</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">y</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math>) for (<b>a</b>) 1511 and 1511-1548-1511 and (<b>b</b>) 1548 and 1548-1511-1548; Shear stress (τ) for (<b>c</b>) 1511 and 1511-1548-1511 and (<b>d</b>) 1548 and 1548-1511-1548.</p>
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<p>The stress redistribution under an increasing load of SikaPower<sup>®</sup>-1511 adhesive.</p>
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<p>The complex stress states near the two interface ends under critical damage conditions of SikaPower<sup>®</sup>-1548 adhesive. (<b>a</b>) Max Principal Stress. (<b>b</b>) Peel Stress <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mrow> <mo mathvariant="normal">σ</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">y</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math>(<math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">S</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>22</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math>). (<b>c</b>) Shear Stress <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mrow> <mo mathvariant="normal">τ</mo> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>xy</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math>(<math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="normal">S</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mn>12</mn> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> </semantics></math>).</p>
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<p>Shear stress distribution at the adhesive middle line of different resin epoxy adhesive combinations under Pressure = 2 MPa for (<b>a</b>) 1511 and 1511-1548-1511 and (<b>b</b>) 1548 and 1548-1511-1548;.and under Pressure = Failure Strength for (<b>c</b>) 1511 and 1511-1548-1511 and (<b>d</b>) 1548 and 1548-1511-1548.</p>
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<p>Max Principal Stress distribution of 1548-1511-1548 adhesive combinations under Pressure = Failure Strength. (<b>a</b>) at the adhesive ends. (<b>b</b>) at the second dangerous positions.</p>
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15 pages, 4744 KiB  
Article
Interface Engineering of Styrenic Polymer Grafted Porous Micro-Silicon/Polyaniline Composite for Enhanced Lithium Storage Anode Materials
by Yechan Lee, Mahesh Naikwade and Sang-Wha Lee
Polymers 2024, 16(24), 3544; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16243544 - 19 Dec 2024
Viewed by 300
Abstract
Si anode materials are promising candidates for next-generation Li-ion batteries (LIBs) because of their high capacities. However, expansion and low conductivity result in rapid performance degradation. Herein, we present a facile one-pot method for pyrolyzing polystyrene sulfonate (PSS) polymers at low temperatures (≤400 [...] Read more.
Si anode materials are promising candidates for next-generation Li-ion batteries (LIBs) because of their high capacities. However, expansion and low conductivity result in rapid performance degradation. Herein, we present a facile one-pot method for pyrolyzing polystyrene sulfonate (PSS) polymers at low temperatures (≤400 °C) to form a thin carbonaceous layer on the silicon surface. Specifically, micron silicon (mSi) was transformed into porous mSi (por-mSi) by a metal-assisted chemical etching method, and a phenyl-based thin film derived from the thermolysis of PSS formed a strong Si–C/Si–O–C covalent bonding with the Si surface, which helped maintain stable cycle performance by improving the interfacial properties of mSi. Additionally, PSS-grafted por-mSi (por-mSi@PSS) anode was coated with polyaniline (PANI) for endowing additional electrical conductivity. The por-mSi@PSS/PANI anode demonstrated a high reversible capacity of ~1500 mAh g−1 at 0.1 A g−1 after 100 cycles, outperforming or matching the performance reported in recent studies. A thin double layer composed of phenyl moieties and a conductive PANI coating improved the stability of Si-based anodes and provided an effective pathway for Li+ ion transport to the Si interface, suggesting that polymer-modified Si anodes hold significant promise for advanced LIB applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Design and Characterization of Polymer-Based Electrode Materials)
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<p>Field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) images of (<b>a</b>) micron silicon (mSi), (<b>b</b>) porous micron silicon (por-mSi), (<b>c</b>) polystyrene-sulfonate-grafted porous micron silicon (por-mSi@PSS), and (<b>d</b>) por-mSi@PSS anode coated with polyaniline (por-mSi@PSS/PANI) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) elemental mapping of por-mSi@PSS@PANI for (<b>e</b>) full image, (<b>f</b>) N, (<b>g</b>) S, and (<b>h</b>) Si elements.</p>
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<p>SEM images and elemental composition data of por-mSi@PSS (<b>a</b>), and por-mSi@PSS/PANI (<b>b</b>), TEM image (<b>c</b>), HR-TEM (<b>d</b>), and SAED image (<b>e</b>) of por-mSi@PSS.</p>
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<p>(<b>a</b>) X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectra and (<b>b</b>) Raman spectra of por-mSi, por-mSi@PSS, and por-mSi@PSS/PANI.</p>
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<p>Deconvoluted X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) spectra for por-mSi, por-mSi@PSS and por-mSi@PSS/PANI samples. (<b>a</b>–<b>c</b>) Survey scan, (<b>d</b>–<b>f</b>) Si 2p core spectra, and (<b>g</b>–<b>i</b>) C 1s core spectra.</p>
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<p>Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) of por-mSi, por-mSi@PSS, and por-mSi@PSS/PANI.</p>
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<p>(<b>a</b>) Cyclic voltammetry of prepared anodes from 1st to 5th cycle. (<b>b</b>) Galvanostatic charge–discharge profiles for the first cycles of mSi, por-mSi, por-mSi@PSS, and por-mSi@PSS/PANI at a current density of 0.04 A g<sup>−1</sup>. (<b>c</b>) Cycling performance of mSi, por-mSi, por-mSi@PSS, and por-mSi@PSS/PANI at 0.1 A g<sup>−1</sup>. (<b>d</b>) Rate capability of prepared samples. (<b>e</b>) Nyquist plot of mSi, por-mSi, and por-mSi@PSS/PANI samples before cycling.</p>
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<p>Schematic of Li+ ion storage mechanism of por-mSi@PSS/PANI. (<b>a</b>) Si and styrene C fragments formed a solid Si–C/Si–O–C bond (PSS layer of 4–5 nm shown in HR-TEM images), and (<b>b</b>) a conductive polymer layer attached by electrostatic attraction contributed to the improved transfer of Li+ ions and electrons.</p>
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27 pages, 8563 KiB  
Article
Implementation of an Enhanced Edge Computing System for the Optimization of Strawberry Crop in Greenhouses: A Smart Agriculture Approach
by Paula Abdo-Peralta, Cristian García-Pumagualle, Katherin Carrera-Silva, Catherine Frey, Carlos Rolando Rosero-Erazo, John Ortega-Castro, Juan Sebastián Silva Orozco and Theofilos Toulkeridis
Agronomy 2024, 14(12), 3030; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14123030 - 19 Dec 2024
Viewed by 339
Abstract
This study introduces AgroTec 4.0, which is a smart farming system designed to revolutionize strawberry cultivation in greenhouses through the integration of edge computing technology in the Andean region of Ecuador. The primary objective has been to enhance cultivation efficiency by comparing results [...] Read more.
This study introduces AgroTec 4.0, which is a smart farming system designed to revolutionize strawberry cultivation in greenhouses through the integration of edge computing technology in the Andean region of Ecuador. The primary objective has been to enhance cultivation efficiency by comparing results from strawberry crops with and without the system, under identical greenhouse conditions. Given the low educational and economic status of local farmers, AgroTec 4.0 was engineered to be user-friendly, easy to operate, and cost-effective, empowering producers with data-driven decision-making capabilities. Key findings underscore the potential of AgroTec 4.0 and agricultural data, including a 15% increase in strawberry yield, from 5.0 kg/m2 in the control greenhouse to 5.75 kg/m2 with AgroTec 4.0, highlighting the system’s ability to maximize productivity. There has also been a significant 20% reduction in water usage, decreasing from 80 L/m2 in the control greenhouse to 64 L/m2 with the system, showcasing AgroTec 4.0’s efficiency in resource management. Furthermore, there were significant improvements in fruit quality, with an 11.8% increase in the Brix index (from 8.5 to 9.5) and a 16.7% increase in average fruit weight (from 30 to 35 g), demonstrating the system’s capacity to enhance product quality. Finally, there has been an impressive 103.03% return on investment (ROI) with AgroTec 4.0, compared to no change in ROI in the control greenhouse, emphasizing the economic value of implementing this technology. These results underscore the transformative potential of AgroTec 4.0 in precision agriculture, offering a scalable and sustainable approach for small-scale producers in Ecuador. The system’s modularity and real-time data analysis capabilities allow for flexible adaptation to various needs, providing farmers with an intuitive interface for managing crops and optimizing resource use. This study demonstrates the feasibility of leveraging agricultural data and edge computing to improve cultivation practices and enhance productivity, contributing efficiently to the sustainability of agriculture in challenging environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)
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<p>Location map of the study area.</p>
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<p>(<b>a</b>) Internal view of the experimental area. (<b>b</b>) External view of the greenhouses under study.</p>
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<p>Methodological research process.</p>
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<p>The illustrated schematized applied solution architecture.</p>
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<p>(<b>a</b>) Connection diagram of relative humidity and temperature sensor module, (<b>b</b>) connection diagram of soil moisture sensor module HD-38, (<b>c</b>) connection diagram of CO<sub>2</sub> sensor module MH-Z19B.</p>
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<p>Actuator module connection diagram.</p>
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<p>MQTT system architecture.</p>
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<p>Diagram of the conceptual algorithm of the developed system.</p>
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<p>Main dashboard with the ability to monitor multiple greenhouses simultaneously.</p>
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<p>(<b>a</b>) Dashboard for strawberry crop monitoring, (<b>b</b>) event control interface.</p>
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<p>(<b>a</b>) Temperature report, (<b>b</b>) relative humidity report, (<b>c</b>) dew point report, (<b>d</b>) main menu.</p>
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<p>System implementation environment.</p>
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<p>Wireless sensor network.</p>
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<p>(<b>a</b>) Wireless soil moisture sensor module, (<b>b</b>) wireless CO<sub>2</sub> sensor module, (<b>c</b>) wireless relative humidity and temperature sensor module, (<b>d</b>) IoT actuator module.</p>
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31 pages, 13417 KiB  
Review
Interface Issues of Layered Transition Metal Oxide Cathodes for Sodium-Ion Batteries: Current Status, Recent Advances, Strategies, and Prospects
by Yongxin Kuang, Yanxue Wu, Hangyu Zhang and Huapeng Sun
Molecules 2024, 29(24), 5988; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29245988 - 19 Dec 2024
Viewed by 322
Abstract
Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) hold significant promise in energy storage devices due to their low cost and abundant resources. Layered transition metal oxide cathodes (NaxTMO2, TM = Ni, Mn, Fe, etc.), owing to their high theoretical capacities and straightforward synthesis [...] Read more.
Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) hold significant promise in energy storage devices due to their low cost and abundant resources. Layered transition metal oxide cathodes (NaxTMO2, TM = Ni, Mn, Fe, etc.), owing to their high theoretical capacities and straightforward synthesis procedures, are emerging as the most promising cathode materials for SIBs. However, the practical application of the NaxTMO2 cathode is hindered by an unstable interface, causing rapid capacity decay. This work reviewed the critical factors affecting the interfacial stability and degradation mechanisms of NaxTMO2, including air sensitivity and the migration and dissolution of TM ions, which are compounded by the loss of lattice oxygen. Furthermore, the mainstream interface modification approaches for improving electrochemical performance are summarized, including element doping, surface engineering, electrolyte optimization, and so on. Finally, the future developmental directions of these layered NaxTMO2 cathodes are concluded. This review is meant to shed light on the design of superior cathodes for high-performance SIBs. Full article
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<p>Illustrates the main factors that affect the interface stability of the layered Na<sub>x</sub>TMO<sub>2</sub> cathode.</p>
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<p>Schematic illustration of the layered Na<sub>x</sub>TMO<sub>2</sub> crystal structures of (<b>a</b>) P2-type and (<b>b</b>) O3-type [<a href="#B39-molecules-29-05988" class="html-bibr">39</a>]. Copyright 2023, Wiley. (<b>c</b>) Structure schematic of the Na<sub>e</sub> and Na<sub>f</sub> sites in the typical P2-type Na<sub>x</sub>TMO<sub>2</sub> [<a href="#B43-molecules-29-05988" class="html-bibr">43</a>]. Copyright 2021, Wiley. (<b>d</b>) In situ XRD patterns of an NNM cathode during cycling [<a href="#B44-molecules-29-05988" class="html-bibr">44</a>]. Copyright 2022, Wiley.</p>
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<p>(<b>a</b>) The cycling performance of Na<sub>0.67</sub>Ni<sub>0.33</sub>Mn<sub>0.67</sub>O<sub>2</sub> at 120 mA g<sup>−1</sup>, (<b>b</b>) comparison of the impedance (at the 1st and 100th cycles with frequencies from 100 kHz to 10 MHz), and (<b>c</b>) the rate capability of Na<sub>0.67</sub>Ni<sub>0.33</sub>Mn<sub>0.67</sub>O<sub>2</sub> exposure to three environments (pristine, RH 93% and CO<sub>2</sub>, and water) [<a href="#B46-molecules-29-05988" class="html-bibr">46</a>]. Copyright 2020, Springer Nature. (<b>d</b>) Chemical model of NaNi<sub>0.7</sub>Mn<sub>0.15</sub>Co<sub>0.15</sub>O<sub>2</sub> exposed to air, (<b>e</b>) cross-sectional TOF-SIMS mapping of NaNi<sub>0.7</sub>Mn<sub>0.15</sub>Co<sub>0.15</sub>O<sub>2</sub> exposed to air for 24 h, showing the distribution of various secondary ions, including NaNi<sup>+</sup>, C<sub>3</sub>H<sup>2–</sup>, NaC<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub><sup>2–</sup>, <sup>62</sup>NiO<sup>–</sup>, F<sup>–</sup>, and Na<sub>2</sub>F<sup>+</sup> fragments [<a href="#B49-molecules-29-05988" class="html-bibr">49</a>]. Copyright 2018, American Chemical Society. (<b>f</b>) STEM images of NFM111 stored in CO<sub>2</sub> with water vapor for 12 h, O<sub>2</sub> with water vapor for 48 h, and moist air (RH = 60%, CO<sub>2</sub> concentration ~600 ppm) for 48 h [<a href="#B51-molecules-29-05988" class="html-bibr">51</a>]. Copyright 2024, AAAS.</p>
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<p>(<b>a</b>) The ligand field in manganese oxides distorts the six equivalent metal–oxygen bonds (<b>left</b>) into two longer axial bonds and four shorter equatorial bonds (<b>right</b>) [<a href="#B62-molecules-29-05988" class="html-bibr">62</a>]. Copyright 2020, AAAS. (<b>b</b>) The migration pathway of Ni<sup>3+</sup> from an octahedron to a tetrahedron in layered oxides, (<b>c</b>) TEM-HAADF image and its enlarged Region I and Region II of cycled NFM [<a href="#B64-molecules-29-05988" class="html-bibr">64</a>]. Copyright 2020, Wiley. (<b>d</b>) Illustration of a possible migration pathway of iron [<a href="#B67-molecules-29-05988" class="html-bibr">67</a>]. Copyright 2023, Wiley. (<b>e</b>) The Fe<sup>4+</sup>/Fe<sup>3+</sup> redox model at the interface indicates that the reduction of Fe<sup>4+</sup> is coupled with the oxidation of electrolytes, thereby increasing the interfacial impedance [<a href="#B68-molecules-29-05988" class="html-bibr">68</a>]. Copyright 2015, American Chemical Society.</p>
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<p>(<b>a</b>) Observing intragranular cracks in Na<sub>2/3</sub>Ni<sub>1/3</sub>Mn<sub>2/3</sub>O<sub>2</sub> samples after 50 cycles at 2.0–4.25 V with STEM, which shows the atomic configurations of the phase boundary [<a href="#B74-molecules-29-05988" class="html-bibr">74</a>]. Copyright 2018, Elsevier. (<b>b</b>) In situ XRD patterns of the P2-Na<sub>0.706</sub>MnO<sub>2</sub> during the initial two charges/discharges [<a href="#B75-molecules-29-05988" class="html-bibr">75</a>]. Copyright 2021, Springer Nature. (<b>c</b>) Initial cycle’s operando XRD maps of Na<sub>2/3</sub>Ni<sub>1/3</sub>Mn<sub>2/3</sub>O<sub>2</sub> and (<b>d</b>) Na<sub>2/3</sub>[Ni<sub>1/6</sub>Mn<sub>1/2</sub>Fe<sub>1/3</sub>]O<sub>2</sub> [<a href="#B76-molecules-29-05988" class="html-bibr">76</a>]. Asterisks (*) denote reflections associated with the operando cell window and inactive electrode constituents (e.g., carbon). Copyright 2019, Royal Society of Chemistry.</p>
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<p>(<b>a</b>) An intensity contour plot of the in situ XRD peaks for Na<sub>1−x</sub>TFCN in 2~4.2 V [<a href="#B81-molecules-29-05988" class="html-bibr">81</a>]. Copyright 2020, Wiley. (<b>b</b>) In situ XRD patterns evolution of (003) and (104) diffraction peaks, as well as corresponding charge and discharge curves, for NFM, and (<b>c</b>) HRTEM images and FFT (inset) patterns of NFM. The rock-salt phase is marked by a red rectangle [<a href="#B82-molecules-29-05988" class="html-bibr">82</a>]. Copyright 2023, Wiley.</p>
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<p>(<b>a</b>) Bright-field TEM images of a primary particle at the core (the fully discharged Na[Ni<sub>0.5</sub>Mn<sub>0.5</sub>]O<sub>2</sub> cathode after 100 cycles at the upper cut-off voltage of 4.0 V), with a SAED pattern (inset) (weaker additional spots from the rock-salt phase are marked by red circles) [<a href="#B99-molecules-29-05988" class="html-bibr">99</a>]. Copyright 2020, Wiley. (<b>b</b>) The structural diagram of the dissolution of TM ions at the CEI and catalytic reforming in the SEI, utilizing NaNi<sub>0.68</sub>Mn<sub>0.22</sub>Co<sub>0.1</sub>O<sub>2</sub> as the cathode material [<a href="#B105-molecules-29-05988" class="html-bibr">105</a>]. Copyright 2022, Springer Nature. (<b>c</b>) The STEM images of NLNM after 400 cycles using the LE electrolyte [<a href="#B106-molecules-29-05988" class="html-bibr">106</a>]. Copyright 2023, Wiley.</p>
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<p>(<b>a</b>) Comparison of the electrochemical properties of P2-NNM and P2-Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>-NNM. (<b>b</b>) Schematic figure of exfoliation during the sodiation and de-sodiation processes of the P2-NNM particle [<a href="#B114-molecules-29-05988" class="html-bibr">114</a>]. Copyright 2016, Elsevier. (<b>c</b>) Ex situ HRTEM images of particles (P2/P3-ALD-Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>-NNM) at the interface, (<b>d</b>) long-term cycling test of P2/P3-NNM-Pristine and P2/P3-ALD-Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>-NNM at 5 C [<a href="#B116-molecules-29-05988" class="html-bibr">116</a>]. Copyright 2021, Wiley. (<b>e</b>) Schematic illustration of by-products on the surface of NaPO<sub>3</sub>-coated NNM (after 50 cycles) [<a href="#B129-molecules-29-05988" class="html-bibr">129</a>]. Copyright 2018, Wiley. (<b>f</b>) Structural schematic and STEM images of NMP@NCMT [<a href="#B130-molecules-29-05988" class="html-bibr">130</a>]. Copyright 2023, Wiley. (<b>g</b>) STEM image of a particle cross-section of modified Na<sub>3–3x</sub>Al<sub>x</sub>PO<sub>4</sub> [<a href="#B132-molecules-29-05988" class="html-bibr">132</a>]. Copyright 2023, American Chemical Society. (<b>h</b>) SEM images of P2-NNMO and P2-NMMO@NTP after 150 cycles at 0.2 C [<a href="#B133-molecules-29-05988" class="html-bibr">133</a>]. Copyright 2020, Elsevier.</p>
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<p>(<b>a</b>) HAADF-STEM images of VF-NFMO and VC-NFMO charged to 4.5 V taken along the (210) projection [<a href="#B142-molecules-29-05988" class="html-bibr">142</a>]. Copyright 2024, Springer Nature. (<b>b</b>) HAADF-STEM image of the P2-Na<sub>0.76</sub>Ca<sub>0.05</sub>[Ni<sub>0.23</sub>□<sub>0.08</sub>Mn<sub>0.69</sub>]O<sub>2</sub> cathode. (<b>c</b>) Cycling performance of P2-Na<sub>0.76</sub>Ca<sub>0.05</sub>[Ni<sub>0.23</sub>□<sub>0.08</sub>Mn<sub>0.69</sub>]O<sub>2</sub> at 0.1 C in comparison with the Ca-0.04 and Ca-0.06 counterparts (inset is the HRTEM images after 50 cycles) [<a href="#B143-molecules-29-05988" class="html-bibr">143</a>]. Copyright 2021, Wiley. (<b>d</b>) From left to right, the schematic illustration of zero-phase transition upon cycling induced by the stable oxygen redox, the lattice strain’s evolution of the O-Mn-LNM cathode during cycling processes, the well-preserved superstructure XRD during cycling, and the NPD data for the 4.5 V charged O-Mn-LNM cathode [<a href="#B146-molecules-29-05988" class="html-bibr">146</a>]. Copyright 2024, Wiley. (<b>e</b>) STEM image and EELS quantification of the O and Mn for the 10th-charged NLMO and NLAMO [<a href="#B147-molecules-29-05988" class="html-bibr">147</a>]. Copyright 2023, Royal Soc Chemistry. (<b>f</b>) Schematic illustrations of the structure change of ZT-NFMO during Na<sup>+</sup> extraction [<a href="#B148-molecules-29-05988" class="html-bibr">148</a>]. Copyright 2024, Wiley.</p>
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<p>(<b>a</b>) TEM image of the Na-LMNM’T cathode in the NaPF<sub>6</sub> (EMC/FEC) in a 9:1 (EF91) and NaPF<sub>6</sub> (EMC/FEC/TTE) in a 6:1:3 (EFT613) electrolyte. (<b>b</b>) Schematic illustrations of the solvation structure and the CEIs in the EFT613 electrolytes [<a href="#B152-molecules-29-05988" class="html-bibr">152</a>]. Copyright 2024, Elsevier. (<b>c</b>) Illustration of the components with a Na-metal battery after long-term cycling in the carbonate-based electrolyte (<b>left</b>) and NaFSI–NaNO<sub>3</sub>–TMP electrolyte (TMP-based LHCE, <b>right</b>). (<b>d</b>) Cycling performance of NFM with an active-material loading of 5mg cm<sup>−2</sup> [<a href="#B155-molecules-29-05988" class="html-bibr">155</a>]. Copyright 2024, Springer Nature. (<b>e</b>) Cryo-TEM images of an NMC cathode after 100 cycles in NaPF<sub>6</sub>/EC: EMC and NaFSI/DMC: TFP electrolytes (yellow dashed lines indicate the interfaces of the CEI and the surface reconstruction region of NMC) [<a href="#B156-molecules-29-05988" class="html-bibr">156</a>]. Copyright 2022, Springer Nature. (<b>f</b>) Schematic illustration of the structure of the interface corresponding to before and after electrochemical cycling [<a href="#B157-molecules-29-05988" class="html-bibr">157</a>]. Copyright 2024, Wiley.</p>
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<p>Optimization strategy of interface issues of the Na<sub>x</sub>TMO<sub>2</sub> cathode.</p>
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14 pages, 7106 KiB  
Article
Numerical Investigation and Device Architecture Optimization of Sb2Se3 Thin-Film Solar Cells Using SCAPS-1D
by Chung-Kuan Lai and Yi-Cheng Lin
Materials 2024, 17(24), 6203; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17246203 - 19 Dec 2024
Viewed by 223
Abstract
Antimony selenide (Sb2Se3) shows promise for photovoltaics due to its favorable properties and low toxicity. However, current Sb2Se3 solar cells exhibit efficiencies significantly below their theoretical limits, primarily due to interface recombination and non-optimal device architectures. [...] Read more.
Antimony selenide (Sb2Se3) shows promise for photovoltaics due to its favorable properties and low toxicity. However, current Sb2Se3 solar cells exhibit efficiencies significantly below their theoretical limits, primarily due to interface recombination and non-optimal device architectures. This study presents a comprehensive numerical investigation of Sb2Se3 thin-film solar cells using SCAPS-1D simulation software, focusing on device architecture optimization and interface engineering. We systematically analyzed device configurations (substrate and superstrate), hole-transport layer (HTL) materials (including NiOx, CZTS, Cu2O, CuO, CuI, CuSCN, CZ-TA, and Spiro-OMeTAD), layer thicknesses, carrier densities, and resistance effects. The substrate configuration with molybdenum back contact demonstrated superior performance compared with the superstrate design, primarily due to favorable energy band alignment at the Mo/Sb2Se3 interface. Among the investigated HTL materials, Cu2O exhibited optimal performance with minimal valence-band offset, achieving maximum efficiency at 0.06 μm thickness. Device optimization revealed critical parameters: series resistance should be minimized to 0–5 Ω-cm2 while maintaining shunt resistance above 2000 Ω-cm2. The optimized Mo/Cu2O(0.06 μm)/Sb2Se3/CdS/i-ZnO/ITO/Al structure achieved a remarkable power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 21.68%, representing a significant improvement from 14.23% in conventional cells without HTL. This study provides crucial insights for the practical development of high-efficiency Sb2Se3 solar cells, demonstrating the significant impact of device architecture optimization and interface engineering on overall performance. Full article
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<p>Schematic diagram of the proposed solar-cell structure: (<b>a</b>) p-n substrate configuration, (<b>b</b>) p-n superstrate configuration, (<b>c</b>) n-p-p<sup>+</sup> substrate configuration.</p>
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<p>Energy band diagrams of different device configurations: (<b>a</b>) substrate and (<b>b</b>) superstrate structures.</p>
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<p>Performance characteristics of different device configurations: (<b>a</b>) current–voltage curves and (<b>b</b>) external quantum efficiency spectra.</p>
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<p>Energy band diagrams of various HTL materials in the device structure.</p>
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<p>PCE comparison of different HTL materials.</p>
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<p>Relationship between Cu<sub>2</sub>O HTL thickness and device performance.</p>
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<p>Relationship between Cu<sub>2</sub>O HTL shallow acceptor density and device performance.</p>
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<p>Effect of shallow acceptor density on Sb<sub>2</sub>Se<sub>3</sub> solar-cell efficiency at different Cu<sub>2</sub>O HTL thicknesses.</p>
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<p>Numerical analysis of series and parallel resistance on device performance. (<b>a</b>) Open-circuit voltage (Voc) variation, (<b>b</b>) Short-circuit current density (Jsc) response, (<b>c</b>) Fill Factor (FF) dependence, and (<b>d</b>) Device efficiency changes with respect to series and parallel resistance.</p>
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