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25 pages, 6316 KiB  
Review
Twenty Years of Resilient City Research: Reviews and Perspectives
by Zongrun Wang, Yiyun Tan and Xin Lu
Sustainability 2024, 16(24), 11211; https://doi.org/10.3390/su162411211 - 20 Dec 2024
Viewed by 322
Abstract
The resilient city plays an increasingly important role in coping with the challenges raised by economic, social, and environmental risks. In this review, we examine approximately 27,094 papers published in the Web of Science Core Collection (WOSCC) and perform extensive bibliometric and scientometric [...] Read more.
The resilient city plays an increasingly important role in coping with the challenges raised by economic, social, and environmental risks. In this review, we examine approximately 27,094 papers published in the Web of Science Core Collection (WOSCC) and perform extensive bibliometric and scientometric analyses to identify the research themes, evolutionary history, and potential research trends in the state of the art in resilient city studies. Seven main resilient city research themes are identified, with significant differences persisting across regions. Specifically, the research on resilient cities in Europe, Asia, Africa, and North America reveals clear regional characteristics in macro development planning and strategies, technological methods, urban economic growth, urban water resource protection, and so on. The analysis also reveals the collaborative networks among different countries and regions in the study of resilient cities. The evolutionary history of resilient city research shows that it has gradually evolved from a single research field into a multidisciplinary field and further formed a unique discipline. Moreover, the urban ecological environment, urban economic development, urban sprawl, and urban mobility have become key research hot spots and trends in resilient city research. This study provides a systematic and data-driven analytical demonstration of resilient city research, which provides empirical support for policy formulation and practice. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Sustainable Management)
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<p>Number of papers per year about resilient city research [<a href="#B39-sustainability-16-11211" class="html-bibr">39</a>]. Source: prepared by the author.</p>
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<p>Research framework. Source: prepared by the author.</p>
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<p>Author cooperative network. Source: prepared by the author.</p>
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<p>Disciplinary categories of the research. Source: prepared by the author.</p>
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<p>Keyword clustering timeline of resilient city research. Source: prepared by the author.</p>
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<p>Country cooperation network. Source: prepared by the author.</p>
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<p>Country cooperation network clustering. Source: prepared by the author.</p>
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<p>Citation dual-map overlays of resilient city, smart city, and urban emergency research. In the dual-map overlay, the longer the horizontal axis of the ellipse, the more papers are published in the corresponding journal; the longer the vertical axis of the ellipse, the more authors it represents [<a href="#B43-sustainability-16-11211" class="html-bibr">43</a>]. The curves of different colors represent the citation links of citing and cited literature in different research fields. Source: prepared by the author.</p>
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<p>Disciplinary subject burst detection. Source: prepared by the author.</p>
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<p>Keyword burst detection. Source: Prepared by the author.</p>
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20 pages, 2311 KiB  
Article
Effect of Adaptation to High Concentrations of Cadmium on Soil Phytoremediation Potential of the Middle European Ecotype of a Cosmopolitan Cadmium Hyperaccumulator Solanum nigrum L.
by Ewa Miszczak, Sebastian Stefaniak, Danuta Cembrowska-Lech, Lidia Skuza and Irena Twardowska
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14(24), 11808; https://doi.org/10.3390/app142411808 - 17 Dec 2024
Viewed by 371
Abstract
The Cd hyperaccumulator Solanum nigrum L. exhibits a cosmopolitan character and proven high and differentiated efficiency. This suggests the possibility of optimizing its Cd phytoremediation capacity and applicability through searching among remote ecotypes/genotypes. However, the extensive studies on this hyperaccumulator have been limited [...] Read more.
The Cd hyperaccumulator Solanum nigrum L. exhibits a cosmopolitan character and proven high and differentiated efficiency. This suggests the possibility of optimizing its Cd phytoremediation capacity and applicability through searching among remote ecotypes/genotypes. However, the extensive studies on this hyperaccumulator have been limited to Far East (Asian) regions. Pioneer pot experiments on the Middle European ecotype of S. nigrum within a concentration range of 0–50 mg kg−1 Cd in soil revealed its Cd phytoremediation capacity to be comparable to Asian ecotypes but with a fundamentally different Cd tolerance threshold. While biomass of the Asian ecotypes declined sharply at Csoil ≈ 10 mg kg−1 Cd, in the Middle European ecotype, a gradual mild biomass decrease occurred within the whole Csoil ≈ 0–50 mg kg−1 Cd range with no toxic symptoms. Its adapted A50 variety was obtained from the seeds of first-generation plants grown in soil with Csoil ≈ 50 mg kg−1 Cd. In this variety, Cd tolerance, accumulation performance, and all physiological parameters (chlorophyll, carotenoids, RuBisCO, and first- and second-line defense anti-oxidant activity) were significantly enhanced, while cell damage by ROS was considerably lesser. This makes the Middle European ecotype and its adapted variety A50 particularly useful to sustainable decontamination of heavily polluted “hot spots” in degraded post-industrial areas. Full article
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<p>Effects of different Cd treatments on (<b>a</b>) chlorophyll <span class="html-italic">a</span>, (<b>b</b>) chlorophyll <span class="html-italic">b,</span> (<b>c</b>) carotenoids content in the non-adapted N0 and adapted A50 varieties of <span class="html-italic">S. nigrum</span> L. (1) 0 to 50 means control and soil treatments with Cd (mg kg<sup>−1</sup>); (2) Data for the same treatments marked by the same capital letters over bars are not significantly different at <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05. Data for different treatments marked by the same lowercase letters over bars are not significantly different at <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05.</p>
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<p>Effects of different Cd treatments on (<b>a</b>) RbcL and (<b>b</b>) RbcS content in the non-adapted N0 and adapted A50 varieties of <span class="html-italic">S. nigrum</span> L. (1) 0 to 50 means control and soil treatments with Cd (mg kg<sup>−1</sup>); (2) Data for the same treatments marked by the same capital letters over bars are not significantly different at <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05. Data for different treatments marked by the same lowercase letters over bars are not significantly different at <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05.</p>
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<p>Effects of different Cd treatments on ROS contents: (<b>a</b>) superoxide anion and (<b>b</b>) hydrogen peroxide in in non-adapted N0 and adapted A50 varieties of <span class="html-italic">S. nigrum</span> L. (1) 0 to 50 means control and soil treatments with Cd (mg kg<sup>−1</sup>); (2) Data for the same treatments marked by the same capital letters over bars are not significantly different at <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05. Data for different treatments marked by the same lowercase letters over bars are not significantly different at <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05.</p>
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<p>Response of the first-line defense antioxidant (<b>a</b>) CAT, (<b>b</b>) SOD and (<b>c</b>) GPX) activity in the leaves of non-adapted N0 and adapted A50 varieties of <span class="html-italic">S. nigrum</span> to the growing Cd stress. (1) 0 to 50 means control and soil treatments with Cd (mg kg<sup>−1</sup>); (2) Data for the same treatments marked by the same capital letters over bars are not significantly different at <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05. Data for different treatments marked by the same lowercase letters over bars are not significantly different at <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05.</p>
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<p>Response of SOD isozyme (<b>a</b>) Cu/ZnSOD, (<b>b</b>) MnSOD (<b>c</b>) FeSOD activities in the leaves of non-adapted N0 and adapted A50 varieties of <span class="html-italic">S. nigrum</span> to the growing Cd stress. (1) 0 to 50 means control and soil treatments with Cd (mg kg<sup>−1</sup>); (2) Data for the same treatments marked by the same capital letters are not significantly different at <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05. Data for different treatments marked by the same lowercase letters over bars are not significantly different at <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05.</p>
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<p>Response of the second-line defense antioxidants ascorbate: (<b>a</b>) APX, (<b>b</b>) AsA and glutathione compounds: (<b>c</b>) GR, (<b>d</b>) GSH, (<b>e</b>) GSSG activity and (<b>f</b>) MDA content in the leaves of non-adapted N0 and adapted A50 varieties of <span class="html-italic">S. nigrum</span> L. to the growing Cd stress. (1) 0 to 50 means control and soil treatments with Cd (mg kg<sup>−1</sup>); (2) Data for the same treatments marked by the same capital letters over bars are not significantly different at <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05. Data for different treatments marked by the same lowercase letters over bars are not significantly different at <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05.</p>
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22 pages, 7826 KiB  
Article
Smart Urban Forest Initiative: Nature-Based Solution and People-Centered Approach for Tree Management in Chiang Mai, Thailand
by Nattasit Srinurak, Warong Wonglangka and Janjira Sukwai
Sustainability 2024, 16(24), 11078; https://doi.org/10.3390/su162411078 - 17 Dec 2024
Viewed by 429
Abstract
This research created urban forest management using GIS as the primary instrument to act as a combined technique that allows the locals to participate in the survey. To maintain a sustainable urban green, urban tree management is necessary to reduce complexity and conflict. [...] Read more.
This research created urban forest management using GIS as the primary instrument to act as a combined technique that allows the locals to participate in the survey. To maintain a sustainable urban green, urban tree management is necessary to reduce complexity and conflict. The initiative used a nature-based solution for tree care depending on species combined with a people-centered smart city approach to better assess tree health in historic urban areas. A total of 4607 records were obtained from the field survey event utilizing a mobile application as a tool. The tree’s basic name, spatial character, position, and potential risk were all gathered during the field survey. As GIS converted the tree’s general or local name into its scientific name, it was able to view and evaluate the data. The findings indicate that trees are most in danger from animals and insects, accounting for 56.39% (2748) of the total risk. Most of them are in areas with poor soil suitability. Through optimized hot-spot analysis mapping, the study recommended that tree care be prioritized. Maps of tree blooming and fruiting indicate the possibility of enhancing the advantages of urban trees in the research region in accordance with their phenological patterns. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue GIS Implementation in Sustainable Urban Planning)
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<p>Conceptual framework.</p>
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<p>Site of study: Chiang Mai historic area.</p>
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<p>Procedural framework.</p>
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<p>The field survey result of spatial feature and risk category.</p>
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<p>Web-based 3d scene of urban tree.</p>
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<p>Flower Blooming map (<a href="https://figshare.com/s/d4d4937d11c70cf3503f" target="_blank">https://figshare.com/s/d4d4937d11c70cf3503f</a>, accessed on 31 July 2024).</p>
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<p>Fruiting period map (<a href="https://figshare.com/s/d4d4937d11c70cf3503f" target="_blank">https://figshare.com/s/d4d4937d11c70cf3503f</a>, accessed on 31 July 2024).</p>
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<p>Tree soil suitability.</p>
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<p>Tree soil suitability.</p>
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<p>Tree risk priority hotspot analysis and example tree condition.</p>
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18 pages, 4524 KiB  
Article
Evolution of Spatial Patterns and Influencing Factors of Sports Tourism Development in Yangtze River Delta Region
by Pengfei Tai, Maoteng Cheng, Fugao Jiang, Zhaojin Li and Qiaojing Wang
Sustainability 2024, 16(24), 11028; https://doi.org/10.3390/su162411028 - 16 Dec 2024
Viewed by 409
Abstract
The development of sports tourism is of great significance in promoting regional cultural exchanges, boosting economic development, accelerating the construction of national fitness, promoting the development of the sports industry, and advancing ecological environmental protection. With the integrated application of exploratory spatial data [...] Read more.
The development of sports tourism is of great significance in promoting regional cultural exchanges, boosting economic development, accelerating the construction of national fitness, promoting the development of the sports industry, and advancing ecological environmental protection. With the integrated application of exploratory spatial data analysis and gray correlation analysis model, this article takes the Yangtze River Delta region as the research object and comprehensively explores the pattern evolution characteristics and influencing factors of its sports tourism development space. The study found that (1) the total amount of sports tourism resources in the Yangtze River Delta region has accumulated in fluctuation and iteration, and the types are constantly enriched; (2) the spatial pattern of sports tourism resources in the Yangtze River Delta region shows the evolution characteristics of “agglomeration–dispersion–agglomeration” over time; (3) the spatial evolution hot spots of sports tourism resources in the Yangtze River Delta region have experienced the following characteristics “unipolar-multipolar-area-wide-suburban”, and the center of gravity of spatial evolution has experienced the process of east–west linear development and north–south diffusion; and (4) the spatial development of sports tourism in the Yangtze River Delta region has experienced the process of “policy + sports + transportation” drive, “economic + social” drive, economic drive, and total-factor drive in different periods. The results of the study can help optimize the allocation of sports and tourism resources in the Yangtze River Delta region, further realize the in-depth integration and development of sports, culture, and tourism, and enhance the regional economy and public service level. Full article
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<p>Study area map.</p>
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<p>An incremental map of the characteristics of sports tourism resources in the Yangtze River Delta region.</p>
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<p>Provincial evolution map of sports tourism resource types in Yangtze River Delta.</p>
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<p>Time series cumulant map of sports tourism resources in provinces of Yangtze River Delta.</p>
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<p>Spatial evolution hot spot map of sports tourism resources.</p>
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<p>Standard deviation ellipse and shift in gravity of sports tourism resource evolution in Yangtze River Delta.</p>
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12 pages, 3041 KiB  
Article
High-Spatial Resolution Maps of PM2.5 Using Mobile Sensors on Buses: A Case Study of Teltow City, Germany, in the Suburb of Berlin, 2023
by Jean-Baptiste Renard, Günter Becker, Marc Nodorft, Ehsan Tavakoli, Leroy Thiele, Eric Poincelet, Markus Scholz and Jérémy Surcin
Atmosphere 2024, 15(12), 1494; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15121494 - 15 Dec 2024
Viewed by 434
Abstract
Air quality monitoring networks regulated by law provide accurate but sparse measurements of PM2.5 mass concentrations. High-spatial resolution maps of the PM2.5 mass concentration values are necessary to better estimate the citizen exposure to outdoor air pollution and the sanitary consequences. To address [...] Read more.
Air quality monitoring networks regulated by law provide accurate but sparse measurements of PM2.5 mass concentrations. High-spatial resolution maps of the PM2.5 mass concentration values are necessary to better estimate the citizen exposure to outdoor air pollution and the sanitary consequences. To address this, a field campaign was conducted in Teltow, a midsize city southwest of Berlin, Germany, for the 2021–2023 period. A network of optical sensors deployed by Pollutrack included fixed monitoring stations as well as mobile sensors mounted on the roofs of buses and cars. This setup provides PM2.5 pollution maps with a spatial resolution down to 100 m on the main roads. The reliability of Pollutrack measurements was first established with comparison to measurements from the German Environment Agency (UBA) and modelling calculations based on high-resolution weather forecasts. Using these validated data, maps were generated for 2023, highlighting the mean PM2.5 mass concentrations and the number of days per year above the 15 µg.m−3 value (the daily maximum recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2021). The findings indicate that PM2.5 levels in Teltow are generally in the good-to-moderate range. The higher values (hot spots) are detected mainly along the highways and motorways, where traffic speeds are higher compared to inner-city roads. Also, the PM2.5 mass concentrations are higher on the street than on the sidewalks. The results were further compared to those in the city of Paris, France, obtained using the same methodology. The observed parallels between the two datasets underscore the strong correlation between traffic density and PM2.5 concentrations. Finally, the study discusses the advantages of integrating such high-resolution sensor networks with modelling approaches to enhance the understanding of localized PM2.5 variability and to better evaluate public exposure to air pollution. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cutting-Edge Developments in Air Quality and Health)
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<p>A map of the south suburb of Berlin, including Teltow; the red dot represents the PM2.5 reference station and the purple dot represents Pollutrack fixed stations (north is up).</p>
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<p>Pollutrack sensors (inside the red circle) on the roof of a bus (<b>left</b>) and of a car (<b>right</b>).</p>
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<p>The time evolution of the PM2.5 concentrations for the UBA reference station, the Pollutrack fixed stations, and the modelling calculation.</p>
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<p>Histograms of the difference for the cross-comparison sessions of measurements (a sliding smoothing over 3 consecutive points is applied for the differences involving the modelling data due to a lower number of datapoints).</p>
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<p>Locations of the measurements; black dots: sparse measurements; red dots: regular measurements.</p>
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<p>Mean PM2.5 mass concentrations from mobile sensors (thick square) and fixed sensors (thick crosses) superimposed on main roads in pale orange and secondary roads in pale grey.</p>
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<p>The installation of the fixed sensors.</p>
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<p>The mean number of days with PM2.5 mass concentrations above 15 µg.m<sup>−3</sup> from the mobile sensors (thick square) superimposed on main roads in pale orange and secondary roads in pale grey.</p>
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20 pages, 21952 KiB  
Article
Evolution and Predictive Analysis of Spatiotemporal Patterns of Habitat Quality in the Turpan–Hami Basin
by Yaqian Li, Yongqiang Liu, Yan Qin, Kun Zhang, Reifat Enwer, Weiping Wang and Shuai Yuan
Land 2024, 13(12), 2186; https://doi.org/10.3390/land13122186 - 14 Dec 2024
Viewed by 537
Abstract
The expansion of urban areas and unsustainable land use associated with human activities have brought about a decline in habitat quality (HQ), especially in arid regions with fragile ecosystems. A precise prediction of land use and habitat quality changes across different scenarios is [...] Read more.
The expansion of urban areas and unsustainable land use associated with human activities have brought about a decline in habitat quality (HQ), especially in arid regions with fragile ecosystems. A precise prediction of land use and habitat quality changes across different scenarios is crucial for the sustainable maintenance of ecological diversity. In this article, the InVEST model was employed to assess both the quality and degradation levels of habitats in the Turpan–Hami Basin (THB) spanning 1990~2020. Additionally, the InVEST-PLUS coupling model was employed to forecast habitat conditions under three different scenarios in 2050. Specifically, it involved the comparison of land use changes and spatial distribution of HQ across natural development (ND) scenarios, town development (UD) scenarios, and ecological protection (EP) scenarios, along with the analysis of hot spots of HQ spanning 1990~2050. The outcomes revealed the following: (1) The primary land use in the THB was categorized as unused land, alongside notable expansions in cultivated land, grassland, and built-up land. Conversely, there was a considerable decline observed in forests, water bodies, and unused land spanning 1990~2020. (2) The HQ within the THB exhibited evident spatial clustering characteristics. Between 1990 and 2020, areas with low HQ accounted for over 85%, areas with unchanged HQ constituted 88.19%, areas experiencing deteriorated HQ comprised approximately 5.02%, and areas displaying improved HQ encompassed around 6.79%. (3) Through the comparison of HQ for the ND, UD, and EP scenarios in 2050, it was observed that the average HQ under the EP scenario ranked highest, exhibiting the lowest degree of degradation on average. This indicates that the EP scenario is most advantageous for preserving HQ. Conclusively, this research provides valuable viewpoints for making decisions aimed at enhancing HQ in ecologically fragile arid regions. Full article
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<p>(<b>a</b>) Location of the study area in China and (<b>b</b>) elevation of the study area.</p>
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<p>Land use types in different times: (<b>a</b>) 1990, (<b>b</b>) 2000, (<b>c</b>) 2010, and (<b>d</b>) 2020.</p>
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<p>Sankey map of land use changes in THB spanning 1990~2020.</p>
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<p>(<b>a</b>) Area decrease and (<b>b</b>) area increase of land use types in THK spanning 1990~2020.</p>
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<p>Habitat degradation maps in THB at different times: (<b>a</b>) 1990, (<b>b</b>) 2000, (<b>c</b>) 2010 and (<b>d</b>) 2020; Bold 1, 2 represent two sample areas.</p>
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<p>Extent of habitat degradation in THB at different times: (<b>a</b>) 1990, (<b>b</b>) 2000, (<b>c</b>) 2010, and (<b>d</b>) 2020. (<b>e</b>) Changes in habitat degradation during 1990–2020.</p>
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<p>HQ levels in THB at different times: (<b>a</b>) 1990, (<b>b</b>) 2000, (<b>c</b>) 2010 and (<b>d</b>) 2020; Bold 1, 2 represent two sample areas.</p>
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<p>HQ levels in THB at different times: (<b>a</b>) 1990, (<b>b</b>) 2000, (<b>c</b>) 2010, and (<b>d</b>) 2020; (<b>e</b>) HQ variations spanning 1990~2020.</p>
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<p>Land use type distribution for the (<b>a</b>) ND, (<b>b</b>) UD, (<b>c</b>) EP scenarios in 2050.</p>
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<p>Habitat degradation levels and proportions under three scenarios in 2050: (<b>a</b>) ND, (<b>b</b>) UD, (<b>c</b>) EP.</p>
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<p>HQ classification chart for three scenarios in 2050: (<b>a</b>) ND; (<b>b</b>) UD; (<b>c</b>) EP. (<b>d</b>) Comparison of HQ between ND scenario and UD scenario; (<b>e</b>) comparison of HQ between ND scenario and EP scenario.</p>
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<p>Contribution map of driving factors of environmental quality in 2020. A: DEM; B: GDP; C: night lights; D: NDVI; E: NPP; F: potential evapotranspiration; G: population; H: rainfall; I: slope; J: soil type; K: temperature; L: distance from the 1st-class road; M: distance from the 2nd-class road; N: distance from the 3rd-class road; O: distance from highway; P: distance from railway; Q: distance from water; R: distance from county seat.</p>
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<p>Distribution of hot spots of HQ in the THB at different times: (<b>a</b>) 1990, (<b>b</b>) 2000, (<b>c</b>) 2010, (<b>d</b>) 2020. Distribution of hot spots of HQ for the three scenarios in 2050: (<b>e</b>) ND; (<b>f</b>) UD; (<b>g</b>) EP.</p>
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15 pages, 2645 KiB  
Article
Drivers of Seasonal Change of Avian Communities in Urban Parks and Cemeteries of Latin America
by Lucas M. Leveau, Lucia Bocelli, Sergio Gabriel Quesada-Acuña, César González-Lagos, Pablo Gutierrez Tapia, Gabriela Franzoi Dri, Carlos A. Delgado-V, Alvaro Garitano-Zavala, Jackeline Campos, Yanina Benedetti, Rubén Ortega-Álvarez, Anotnio Isain Contreras-Rodríguez, Daniela Souza López, Carla Suertegaray Fontana, Thaiane Weinert da Silva, Sarah S. Zalewski Vargas, Maria C. B. Toledo, Juan Andres Sarquis, Alejandro Giraudo, Ada Lilian Echevarria, María Elisa Fanjul, María Valeria Martínez, Josefina Haedo, Luis Gonzalo Cano Sanz, Yuri A. Peña Dominguez, Viviana Fernandez-Maldonado, Veronica Marinero, Vinícius Abilhoa, Rafael Amorin, Juan Fernando Escobar-Ibáñez, María Dolores Juri, Sergio R. Camín, Luis Marone, Augusto João Piratelli, Alexandre G. Franchin, Larissa Crispim and Federico Morelliadd Show full author list remove Hide full author list
Animals 2024, 14(24), 3564; https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14243564 - 10 Dec 2024
Viewed by 929
Abstract
Urban parks and cemeteries constitute hot spots of bird diversity in urban areas. However, the seasonal dynamics of their bird communities have been scarcely explored at large scales. This study aims to analyze the drivers of urban bird assemblage seasonality in urban parks [...] Read more.
Urban parks and cemeteries constitute hot spots of bird diversity in urban areas. However, the seasonal dynamics of their bird communities have been scarcely explored at large scales. This study aims to analyze the drivers of urban bird assemblage seasonality in urban parks and cemeteries comparing assemblages during breeding and non-breeding seasons in the Neotropical Region. Since cemeteries have less human disturbance than urban parks, we expected differences in bird community seasonality between habitats. The seasonal change of species composition was partitioned into species turnover and nestedness. At large scales, the seasonal change of species composition was positively related to temperature seasonality and was higher in the Northern Hemisphere. At the landscape scale, the seasonal change of composition decreased in sites located in the most urbanized areas. At the local scale, sites with the highest habitat diversity and pedestrian traffic had the lowest seasonal change of composition. The species turnover was higher in the Northern Hemisphere, augmented with increasing annual temperature range, and decreased in urban parks. The species nestedness was positively related to habitat diversity. Our results showed that a multi-scale framework is essential to understand the seasonal changes of bird communities. Moreover, the two components of seasonal composition dissimilarity showed contrasting responses to environmental variables. Although the surrounding urbanization lowered the seasonal dynamics of urban green areas, cemeteries seem to conserve more seasonal changes than urban parks. Thus, urban cemeteries help to conserve the temporal dynamics of bird communities in cities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Birds)
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<p>Schematic representation of (<b>a</b>) balanced variation in abundance, (<b>b</b>) abundance gradient, and (<b>c</b>) the presence of balanced variation and abundance gradient. In (<b>a</b>), some species lose individuals between seasons, whereas others gain individuals in the same proportion. In (<b>b</b>), all species lose individuals in the same proportion between breeding and non-breeding seasons. In (<b>c</b>), two species gain individuals whereas the other species lose individuals. Other hypothetical situations where species appear or disappear between seasons are also possible (see [<a href="#B36-animals-14-03564" class="html-bibr">36</a>]).</p>
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<p>Location of study sites (black dots) in Latin America.</p>
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<p>Relationship between environmental variables (<b>a</b>–<b>e</b>) and the seasonal change of bird composition (Bray–Curtis dissimilarity index) in urban parks and cemeteries of Neotropical cities. Blue lines are fitted models and grey bands are 95% confidence intervals. TRANGE: annual range of temperature (°C); Pedestrian: people/10 min; Habitat diversity: Shannon index (H′).</p>
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<p>Relationship between environmental variables and (<b>a</b>–<b>c</b>) the seasonally balanced variation dissimilarity, and (<b>d</b>) the abundance gradient dissimilarity in urban parks and cemeteries of Neotropical cities. Blue lines are fitted models and grey bands are 95% confidence intervals. TRANGE: annual range of temperature (°C). Habitat diversity: Shannon index (H′).</p>
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<p>Relationship between environmental variables (<b>a</b>–<b>c</b>) and the seasonal Sørensen abundance-based dissimilarity in urban parks and cemeteries of Neotropical cities. The Sørensen index considers unseen species between seasons. Blue lines are fitted models and grey bands are 95% confidence intervals. TRANGE: annual range of temperature (°C).</p>
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<p>Summary of the results found in our study. A multiscale framework shows the different drivers of bird assemblage seasonality in the Neotropics. The orange triangles represent the amount of seasonal change of species composition. At the large scale, the blue dashed line indicates the Equator. The seasonal change of bird composition increases with increasing annual range of temperature, which is positively related to latitude (r = 0.91, <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05). Moreover, the seasonal change in bird composition also increases in the Northern Hemisphere part of the Neotropics. At the landscape scale, the seasonal change is negatively related to urbanization (scales from grey to green), whereas at the local scale is negatively related to habitat diversity (yellow triangle).</p>
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16 pages, 2808 KiB  
Article
Spatial Variation and Predictors of Women’s Sole Autonomy in Healthcare Decision-Making in Bangladesh: A Spatial and Multilevel Analysis
by Satyajit Kundu, Md Hafizur Rahman, Syed Sharaf Ahmed Chowdhury, John Elvis Hagan, Susmita Rani Dey, Rakhi Dey, Rita Karmoker, Azaz Bin Sharif and Faruk Ahmed
Healthcare 2024, 12(24), 2494; https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare12242494 - 10 Dec 2024
Viewed by 413
Abstract
Background: Knowing the spatial variation and predictors of women having sole autonomy over their healthcare decisions is crucial to design site-specific interventions. This study examined how women’s sole autonomy over their healthcare choices varies geographically and what factors influence this autonomy among Bangladeshi [...] Read more.
Background: Knowing the spatial variation and predictors of women having sole autonomy over their healthcare decisions is crucial to design site-specific interventions. This study examined how women’s sole autonomy over their healthcare choices varies geographically and what factors influence this autonomy among Bangladeshi women of childbearing age. Methods: Data were obtained from the Bangladesh Demographic and Health Survey (BDHS) 2017–18. The final analysis included data from a total of 18,890 (weighted) women. Spatial distribution, hot spot analysis, ordinary Kriging interpolation, and multilevel multinomial regression analysis were employed. Results: The study found that approximately one in ten women (9.62%) exercised complete autonomy in making decisions about their healthcare. Spatial analysis revealed a significant clustering pattern in this autonomy (Moran’s I = 0.234, p < 0.001). Notably, three divisions—Barisal, Chittagong, and Sylhet—emerged as hot spots where women were more likely to have sole autonomy over their healthcare choices. In contrast, the cold spots (poor level of sole healthcare autonomy by women) were mainly identified in Mymensingh and Rangpur divisions. Women in the age group of 25–49 years, who were highly educated, Muslim, urban residents, and had not given birth recently were more likely to have sole autonomy in making healthcare decisions for themselves. Conversely, women whose husbands were highly educated and employed, as well as those who were pregnant, were less likely to have sole autonomy over their healthcare choices. Conclusions: Since the spatial distribution was clustered, public health interventions should be planned to target the cold spot areas of women’s sole healthcare autonomy. In addition, significant predictors contributing to women’s sole healthcare autonomy must be emphasized while developing interventions to improve women’s empowerment toward healthcare decision-making. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Women's Health Care)
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<p>Global spatial autocorrelation report showing the women’s sole decision-making autonomy in healthcare in Bangladesh (map was generated using ArcGIS v 10.8 software).</p>
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<p>Spatial clustering (hot spot and cold spot) of women’s sole decision-making autonomy in healthcare in Bangladesh (map was generated using ArcGIS v 10.8 software).</p>
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<p>Spatial interpolation of women’s sole autonomy in healthcare decision-making in Bangladesh (map was generated using ArcGIS v 10.8 software).</p>
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25 pages, 3462 KiB  
Article
Long-Term Monitoring of Trends in Xerothermality and Vegetation Condition of a Northeast Mediterranean Island Using Meteorological and Remote Sensing Data
by Panteleimon Xofis, Elissavet Feloni, Dimitrios Emmanouloudis, Stavros Chatzigiovanakis, Kalliopi Kravari, Elena Samourkasidou, George Kefalas and Panagiotis Nastos
Land 2024, 13(12), 2129; https://doi.org/10.3390/land13122129 - 8 Dec 2024
Viewed by 421
Abstract
There is no doubt that global climate change is happening and affecting life on Earth in a variety of ways. It can be seen on the extreme events of natural disasters, prolonged periods of drought, and increased summer and annual temperatures. While climate [...] Read more.
There is no doubt that global climate change is happening and affecting life on Earth in a variety of ways. It can be seen on the extreme events of natural disasters, prolonged periods of drought, and increased summer and annual temperatures. While climate change affects every place on Earth, the Mediterranean region is considered a hot spot of climate change. Temperature is expected to increase further, precipitation, especially during summer months, is expected to decrease, and extreme rainfall events are projected to increase. These projected changes will affect both continental and insular environments, with small islands being particularly vulnerable due to the lack of space for species to move into more favorable conditions. As a result, these environments need to be studied, the changes quantified, and the consequences monitored. The current study focuses on the island of Fournoi in the central eastern part of the Aegean Sea. We employed data from a local meteorological station, which operates for a limited period, the Climate Research Unit TS data, and remote sensing thermal data to monitor the trends in aridity over a period of almost 40 years. The results show that summer temperature has increased significantly over the last 40 years, and this is confirmed by both meteorological and remote sensing data. At the same time, precipitation seems to remain stable. Despite the increased aridity imposed by the increased temperature and stable precipitation, vegetation seems not to be experiencing extreme stress. On the contrary, it seems to be following a positive trend over the study period. This observation is explained by the extreme resilience of the plant species of the study area and the fact that vegetation has been recovering over the last 50 years after a period of human overexploitation, and this recovery overcomes the stress imposed by increased aridity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Where Land Meets Sea: Terrestrial Influences on Coastal Environments)
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<p>Study area location and geomorphology.</p>
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<p>Distribution of Natura2000 Habitats in the study area.</p>
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<p>Gausen and Bagnouls climatic diagram for the period 2013–2021.</p>
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<p>Mean annual temperature trend for the period 2013–2021 based on the actual local climatic data.</p>
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<p>Annual precipitation trend for the period 2013–2021 based on the actual local climatic data.</p>
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<p>Linear regression model between the mean monthly temperature given by the CRU TS data and the actual local data.</p>
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<p>Observed data from the local MS vs. corrected CRU TS data based on the built model.</p>
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<p>Trends of mean annual temperature across the period 1980–2020 based on the corrected CRU TS data.</p>
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<p>Linear regression model between the monthly precipitation given by the CRU TS data and the actual local data.</p>
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<p>Trends of annual precipitation across the period 1980–2020 based on the corrected CRU TS data.</p>
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<p>Trends of precipitation in October across the period 1980–2020 based on the corrected CRU TS data.</p>
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<p>Evolution of the TCI across the study period using selected dates.</p>
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<p>Trends of TCI for the period 1984–2022.</p>
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<p>Trend of VCI for the period 1984–2022.</p>
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18 pages, 3589 KiB  
Article
Addressing the Evolution of Cardenolide Formation in Iridoid-Synthesizing Plants: Site-Directed Mutagenesis of PRISEs (Progesterone-5β-Reductase/Iridoid Synthase-like Enzymes) of Plantago Species
by Maja Dorfner, Jan Klein, Katharina Senkleiter, Harald Lanig, Wolfgang Kreis and Jennifer Munkert
Molecules 2024, 29(23), 5788; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29235788 - 7 Dec 2024
Viewed by 457
Abstract
Enzymes capable of processing a variety of compounds enable plants to adapt to diverse environmental conditions. PRISEs (progesterone-5β-reductase/iridoid synthase-like enzymes), examples of such substrate-promiscuous enzymes, are involved in iridoid and cardenolide pathways and demonstrate notable substrate promiscuity by reducing the activated C=C double [...] Read more.
Enzymes capable of processing a variety of compounds enable plants to adapt to diverse environmental conditions. PRISEs (progesterone-5β-reductase/iridoid synthase-like enzymes), examples of such substrate-promiscuous enzymes, are involved in iridoid and cardenolide pathways and demonstrate notable substrate promiscuity by reducing the activated C=C double bonds of plant-borne and exogenous 1,4-enones. In this study, we identified PRISE genes in Plantago media (PmdP5βR1) and Plantago lanceolata (PlP5βR1), and the corresponding enzymes were determined to share a sequence identity of 95%. Despite the high sequence identity, recombinant expressed PmdP5βR1 was 70 times more efficient than PlP5βR1 for converting progesterone. In order to investigate the underlying reasons for this significant discrepancy, we focused on specific residues located near the substrate-binding pocket and adjacent to the conserved phenylalanine “clamp”. This clamp describes two phenylalanines influencing substrate preferences by facilitating the binding of smaller substrates, such as 2-cyclohexen-1-one, while hindering larger ones, such as progesterone. Using structural analysis based on templates PDB ID: 5MLH and 6GSD from PRISE of Plantago major, along with in silico docking, we identified positions 156 and 346 as hot spots. In PlP5βR1 amino acid residues, A156 and F346 seem to be responsible for the diminished ability to reduce progesterone. Moreover, the double mutant PlP5βR_F156L_A346L, which contains the corresponding amino acids from PmdP5βR1, showed a 15-fold increase in progesterone 5β-reduction. Notably, this modification did not significantly alter the enzyme’s ability to convert other substrates, such as 8-oxogeranial, 2-cyclohexen-1-one, and methyl vinyl ketone. Hence, a rational enzyme design by reducing the number of hotspots selectively, specifically improved the substrate preference of PlP5βR1 for progesterone. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Metabolites of Biofunctional Interest from Plant Sources)
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<p>Progesterone, 8-oxogeranial, 2-cyclohexen-1-one, and methyl vinyl ketone (MVK) used as substrates in PRISE reactions. Specific reduction in activated C=C double bonds highlighted in bold red.</p>
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<p>Superimposed crystal structures: (<b>a</b>) <span class="html-italic">Dl</span>P5βR1 2V6F (orange) and 2V6G (white) with NADP(H) co-crystallized; (<b>b</b>) <span class="html-italic">Pm</span>MOR 6GSD (violet) including progesterone (blue), 5MLH (green), and 8-Oxogeranial (dark green). These figures were generated using UCSF Chimera 1.17.1.</p>
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<p>Alignment of the PRISESs from <span class="html-italic">P. lanceolata</span>, <span class="html-italic">P. media</span>, and <span class="html-italic">P. major</span> aligned with their homologs from <span class="html-italic">Digitalis lanata</span> using Clustal Omega [<a href="#B27-molecules-29-05788" class="html-bibr">27</a>]. The main differences in the amino acid sequences are highlighted in green. The conserved motifs defined by Thorn et al. [<a href="#B3-molecules-29-05788" class="html-bibr">3</a>] and by Pérez-Bermúdez et al. [<a href="#B13-molecules-29-05788" class="html-bibr">13</a>] are highlighted in gray. The structurally conserved amino acids of the binding pocket identified by Bauer et al. [<a href="#B10-molecules-29-05788" class="html-bibr">10</a>] are highlighted in red. The “gatekeepers” F153 and F343 are highlighted in pink [<a href="#B6-molecules-29-05788" class="html-bibr">6</a>]. The hot spot amino acid positions identified by Bauer et al. [<a href="#B29-molecules-29-05788" class="html-bibr">29</a>] are framed in green. The black arrows mark promising spots for SDM.</p>
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<p>The surface depiction of the binding pocket. Progesterone (blue), NADP (purple), and residues 156, 346, and 347 are shown in stick atomic form. The surface is colored according to its Coulombic surface coloring using UCSF Chimera and a color-coded scale: red (−10 kcal/mol·e), white (0 kcal/mol·e), and blue (10 kcal/mol·e). (<b>a</b>) r<span class="html-italic">Pl</span>P5βR with leucine 156, leucine 346, and isoleucine 347; (<b>b</b>) r<span class="html-italic">Pmd</span>P5βR with phenylalanine 156, alanine 346, and valine 347.</p>
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<p>Surface depiction of PRISEs of both <span class="html-italic">P. lanceolata</span> and <span class="html-italic">P. media</span> with residues 153 (yellow), 156 (red), 343 (yellow), 346 (green), and 347 (cyan) highlighted including progesterone (blue) and NADP (purple). Distances of residue 156 and 346 to “phenylalanine clamp” 153/343 marked in stick depiction of residues: (<b>a</b>) <span class="html-italic">Pl</span>P5βR with leucine located at both residue positions 156 and 346; (<b>b</b>) <span class="html-italic">Pmd</span>P5βR containing phenylalanine in 156 and alanine in 346.</p>
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<p>Specific activity of PRISEs from: (<b>a</b>) <span class="html-italic">P. lanceolata</span> and (<b>b</b>) <span class="html-italic">P. media</span>. Mutations introduced via site-directed mutagenesis increased progesterone 5β-reductase activity in PRISE of <span class="html-italic">P. lanceolata</span>. Progesterone (0.3 mM) was used as substrate and regeneration system with NADP<sup>+</sup> as co-substrate was conducted with standard P5βR assay and detected via GC-MS.</p>
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19 pages, 5918 KiB  
Article
Attica: A Hot Spot for Forest Fires in Greece
by Margarita Arianoutsou, George Athanasakis, Dimitrios Kazanis and Anastasia Christopoulou
Fire 2024, 7(12), 467; https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7120467 - 6 Dec 2024
Viewed by 643
Abstract
(1) Background: Forest fires are widespread in Mediterranean-climate regions and are becoming very common in urban and peri-urban areas. (2) Methods: Wildfires in Attica since 1977 are mapped and types of vegetation burned are reported. (3) Results: Fires are becoming larger. During the [...] Read more.
(1) Background: Forest fires are widespread in Mediterranean-climate regions and are becoming very common in urban and peri-urban areas. (2) Methods: Wildfires in Attica since 1977 are mapped and types of vegetation burned are reported. (3) Results: Fires are becoming larger. During the period of study (1977–2024), 45% of the burned area was covered with Pinus halepensis forests, 1.4% with Abies cephalonica forests, and 18.5% with shrublands. A relatively high percentage of the burned area (BA) affected more than once consisted of pine forests (65%). Ten percent of the total BA lies within the boundaries of the Natura 2000 network, Europe’s most important network of protected areas, of which 38.9% was burned. At the interannual scale, the BA in Attica is negatively correlated with relative humidity, while reduced precipitation may contribute to the expansion of wildfires. (4) Conclusions: Fires are becoming larger over time, with low humidity increasing the higher fire risk. Since the changing climate is expected to create more severe and uncontrollable conditions, mitigation and adaptation measures should be planned and be introduced immediately. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Fires on Forest Ecosystems)
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<p>Comparison of observed versus predicted total burned area in relation to the number of fires, using the generalized linear model (GLM) with the gamma family.</p>
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<p>Area burned in Attica during the study period (1977–2024). Only fire events larger than 150 hectares are included.</p>
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<p>Delineation of the burned areas in Attica Prefecture over the entire study period, along with the areas burned multiple times. Only fires larger than 150 hectares are included. Data Sources: Landsat 8 / USGS, RGB: Gray Scale. Resolution: 30 m. <a href="https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/" target="_blank">https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/</a>.</p>
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<p>Mean fire interval per mountain range for the period 1977–2024.</p>
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<p>Total vegetation burned across the study period (1977–2024). Data Sources: Landsat 8/USGS, RGB: Gray Scale, Resolution: 30 m. <a href="https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/" target="_blank">https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/</a>.</p>
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<p>Areas burned at least twice during the fire interval of 15 years and vegetation types burned. Data sources: Landsat-2, 8/USGS, RGB: Gray Scale, Resolution: 30 m. <a href="https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/" target="_blank">https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/</a>.</p>
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<p>Areas designated as Natura 2000 sites in Attica Prefecture, depicted over the total BA during the study period. Landsat-2, 9/USGS, RGB: Gray Scale, Resolution: 30 m. <a href="https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/" target="_blank">https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/</a>.</p>
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<p>BAs within the Natura 2000 Network during the period 1997–2024. Landsat-2, 9/USGS, RGB: Gray Scale, Resolution: 30 m. <a href="https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/" target="_blank">https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/</a>.</p>
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27 pages, 10637 KiB  
Article
Study on Ecosystem Service Trade-Offs and Synergies in the Guangdong–Hong Kong–Macao Greater Bay Area Based on Ecosystem Service Bundles
by Hui Li, Qing Xu, Huiyi Qiu, Jiaheng Du, Zhenzhou Xu, Longying Liu, Zixiu Zhao, Zixin Zhu and Yun He
Land 2024, 13(12), 2086; https://doi.org/10.3390/land13122086 - 3 Dec 2024
Viewed by 551
Abstract
In-depth research on the spatial and temporal evolution of ecosystem service trade-offs and synergistic relationships, scientific identification of ecosystem service bundles, and the main factors affecting the spatial differentiation of ecosystem service bundle provisioning are crucial to enhancing the overall benefits of regional [...] Read more.
In-depth research on the spatial and temporal evolution of ecosystem service trade-offs and synergistic relationships, scientific identification of ecosystem service bundles, and the main factors affecting the spatial differentiation of ecosystem service bundle provisioning are crucial to enhancing the overall benefits of regional ecosystem services and human well-being. Based on the assessment of the Guangdong–Hong Kong–Macao Greater Bay Area ecosystem service functional system, we combined the correlation analysis method, hierarchical clustering method, and principal component analysis to analyze the trade-offs/synergistic relationships of 11 indicators contained in four major ecosystem service categories of the Guangdong–Hong Kong–Macao Greater Bay Area and explored the study of ecosystem service bundle identification and clustering spatial differentiation. The results of this study showed the following: (1) Between 2000 and 2018, Regulating and Supporting services showed a decreasing trend while provisioning and cultural services showed an increasing trend. Human interference affected the spatial differentiation of ecosystem services provision; the provision of individual ecosystem services was more random, but the geospatial distribution showed a certain degree of regularity. (2) The intrinsic connection of ecosystem services is continuously strengthened, and the other four ecosystem services except industrial products in the provisioning services easily produce synergistic relationships with regulating and supporting services, while industrial products, leisure and recreation, scientific research and education, and other ecosystem services are more likely to produce a trade-off relationship between them. The correspondence among ecosystem service trade-offs, synergistic relationships, and cold/hot spots is not uniform due to spatial scales. (3) The method of combining socio-economic statistics and the InVEST model can identify similar ecosystem service bundle classifications, but there are differences in the performance of some of the roles at different study scales and in different study areas. (4) For complex urban-natural ecosystem services, the classified ecosystem service bundles have broad similarities. The development of high-density city clusters depends on the coordinated development of the population, resources, environment, society, and economy of each city in the region. Full article
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<p>Geographical location map of the GBA.</p>
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<p>The relationship between human social development indicators and ESs: (<b>a</b>) Summary of previous research ideas; (<b>b</b>) Improved research framework.</p>
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<p>Research technical route.</p>
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<p>Land use transfer and percentage share of various types of land in the GBA, 2000–2018.</p>
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<p>The GBA ecosystem services Rose Map; the length of the sector radius indicates the strength of the corresponding service supply: (<b>a</b>) Analysis of ecosystem service supply in 2000; (<b>b</b>) Analysis of ecosystem service supply in 2005; (<b>c</b>) Analysis of ecosystem service supply in 2010; (<b>d</b>) Analysis of ecosystem service supply in 2015; (<b>e</b>) Analysis of ecosystem service supply in 2018.</p>
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<p>Pearson correlation between ESs of the GBA: (<b>a</b>) Correlation analysis among ecosystem services in 2000; (<b>b</b>) Correlation analysis among ecosystem services in 2000; (<b>c</b>) Correlation analysis among ecosystem services in 2005; (<b>d</b>) Correlation analysis among ecosystem services in 2010; (<b>e</b>) Correlation analysis among ecosystem services in 2018. In the figure, * indicates the significance of interactions between ecosystem services, * indicates weak significance, ** indicates moderate significance, and *** indicates high significance.</p>
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<p>Pearson correlation between ESs of the GBA: (<b>a</b>) Correlation analysis among ecosystem services in 2000; (<b>b</b>) Correlation analysis among ecosystem services in 2000; (<b>c</b>) Correlation analysis among ecosystem services in 2005; (<b>d</b>) Correlation analysis among ecosystem services in 2010; (<b>e</b>) Correlation analysis among ecosystem services in 2018. In the figure, * indicates the significance of interactions between ecosystem services, * indicates weak significance, ** indicates moderate significance, and *** indicates high significance.</p>
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<p>Analysis of the spatial pattern of cold hot spots in the ecosystem of the GBA: (<b>a</b>) Spatial distribution map of hot and cold spots in 2000; (<b>b</b>) Spatial distribution map of hot and cold spots in 2005; (<b>c</b>) Spatial distribution map of hot and cold spots in 2010; (<b>d</b>) Spatial distribution map of hot and cold spots in 2015; (<b>e</b>) Spatial distribution map of hot and cold spots in 2018.</p>
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<p>Clustering pedigree map of ESs of the GBA. (<b>a</b>) Clustering pedigree map of ecosystem services of the GBA in 2000; (<b>b</b>) Clustering pedigree map of ecosystem services of the GBA in 2005; (<b>c</b>) Clustering pedigree map of ecosystem services of the GBA in 2010; (<b>d</b>) Clustering pedigree map of ecosystem services of the GBA in 2015; (<b>e</b>) Clustering pedigree map of ecosystem services of the GBA in 2018.</p>
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<p>Clustering pedigree map of ESs of the GBA. (<b>a</b>) Clustering pedigree map of ecosystem services of the GBA in 2000; (<b>b</b>) Clustering pedigree map of ecosystem services of the GBA in 2005; (<b>c</b>) Clustering pedigree map of ecosystem services of the GBA in 2010; (<b>d</b>) Clustering pedigree map of ecosystem services of the GBA in 2015; (<b>e</b>) Clustering pedigree map of ecosystem services of the GBA in 2018.</p>
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<p>Clustering pedigree map of ESs of the GBA. (<b>a</b>) Spatial clustering pedigree map of the GBA in 2000; (<b>b</b>) Spatial clustering pedigree map of the GBA in 2005; (<b>c</b>) Spatial clustering pedigree map of the GBA in 2010; (<b>d</b>) Spatial clustering pedigree map of the GBA in 2015; (<b>e</b>) Spatial clustering pedigree map of the GBA in 2018.</p>
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<p>The spatial distribution map of ecosystem service bundles of the GBA in 2018.</p>
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<p>The spatial distribution map of ecosystem service bundles of the GBA in 2018.</p>
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<p>Principal component analysis factor loading plot. (<b>a</b>) Factor loading plots for principal component 1 and principal component 2; (<b>b</b>) Factor loading plots for principal component 1 and principal component 3.</p>
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16 pages, 3399 KiB  
Article
Development of a Mechanical Vehicle Battery Module Simulation Model Combined with Short Circuit Detection
by Klemens Jantscher, Heimo Kreimaier, Alem Miralem and Christoph Breitfuss
Energy Storage Appl. 2024, 1(1), 19-34; https://doi.org/10.3390/esa1010003 - 3 Dec 2024
Viewed by 578
Abstract
In recent years, electric vehicles (EVs) have gained significant traction within the automotive industry, driven by the societal push towards climate neutrality. These vehicles predominantly utilize lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) for storing electric traction energy, posing new challenges in crash safety. This paper presents [...] Read more.
In recent years, electric vehicles (EVs) have gained significant traction within the automotive industry, driven by the societal push towards climate neutrality. These vehicles predominantly utilize lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) for storing electric traction energy, posing new challenges in crash safety. This paper presents the development of a mechanically validated LIB module simulation model specifically for crash applications, augmented with virtual short circuit detection. A pouch cell simulation model is created and validated using mechanical test data from two distinct out-of-plane load cases. Additionally, a method for virtual short circuit prediction is devised and successfully demonstrated. The model is then extended to the battery module level. Full-scale mechanical testing of the battery modules is performed, and the simulation data are compared with the empirical data, demonstrating the model’s validity in the out-of-plane direction. Key metrics such as force-displacement characteristics, force, deformation, and displacement during short circuit events are accurately replicated. It is the first mechanically valid model of a LIB pouch cell module incorporating short circuit prediction with hot spot location, that can be used in full vehicle crash simulations for EVs. The upscaling to full vehicle simulation is enabled by a macro-mechanical simulation approach which creates a computationally efficient model. Full article
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<p>(<b>A</b>): testing principle for the load case indentation cylinder; (<b>B</b>): testing principle for the load case 3-point bending; (<b>C</b>): LIB pouch cell at SOC 100% immediately after short circuit during indentation cylinder test; (<b>D</b>): LIB pouch cell during 3-point bending test; (<b>E</b>): force-displacement (solid lines), voltage-displacement (thin lines) and occurrence of short circuit (dotted lines) for the indentation cylinder tests; (<b>F</b>): force-displacement (solid lines), voltage-displacement (thin lines) and occurrence of short circuit (dotted lines) for the 3-point bending tests.</p>
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<p>FE model of a LIB pouch cell.</p>
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<p>Force-displacement curves for load cases indentation cylinder (<b>A</b>) and 3-point bending (<b>B</b>); pink lines: testing results, black lines: simulation results.</p>
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<p>LIB pouch cell module (<b>A</b>) and a sectional view of the FE simulation model (<b>B</b>) of the same module with cells shown in blue and module materials shown in different colors.</p>
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<p>Schematic representation of the pouch battery module.</p>
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<p>Results gathered from mechanical tests of two LIB module; pictures labeled 1, 2, and 3 show details of the module at different stages during testing; the graphs labeled 4 show a close-up of the voltage measurements from both tests at the point of the first short circuit. Red arrows in picture 1 connect two stills taken from the testing video showing first crack initiation followed by a fully formed crack. Red arrows in picture 1 connect two stills taken from the testing video showing the module lid before and after the failure of a welding seam.</p>
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<p>(<b>A</b>): Cut open LIB module after testing. (<b>B</b>): A view inside the LIB module simulation model at the same level of deformation.</p>
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<p>Comparison of testing and simulation results; (<b>A</b>) force-displacement curves, with occurrence of short circuit marked with dashed lines; (<b>B</b>–<b>D</b>) deformation of the module after testing.</p>
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30 pages, 5277 KiB  
Article
Sea Anemone Kunitz Peptide HCIQ2c1: Structure, Modulation of TRPA1 Channel, and Suppression of Nociceptive Reaction In Vivo
by Aleksandra N. Kvetkina, Sergey D. Oreshkov, Pavel A. Mironov, Maxim M. Zaigraev, Anna A. Klimovich, Yulia V. Deriavko, Aleksandr S. Menshov, Dmitrii S. Kulbatskii, Yulia A. Logashina, Yaroslav A. Andreev, Anton O. Chugunov, Mikhail P. Kirpichnikov, Ekaterina N. Lyukmanova, Elena V. Leychenko and Zakhar O. Shenkarev
Mar. Drugs 2024, 22(12), 542; https://doi.org/10.3390/md22120542 - 2 Dec 2024
Viewed by 788
Abstract
TRPA1 is a homotetrameric non-selective calcium-permeable channel. It contributes to chemical and temperature sensitivity, acute pain sensation, and development of inflammation. HCIQ2c1 is a peptide from the sea anemone Heteractis magnifica that inhibits serine proteases. Here, we showed that HCIQ2c1 significantly reduces AITC- [...] Read more.
TRPA1 is a homotetrameric non-selective calcium-permeable channel. It contributes to chemical and temperature sensitivity, acute pain sensation, and development of inflammation. HCIQ2c1 is a peptide from the sea anemone Heteractis magnifica that inhibits serine proteases. Here, we showed that HCIQ2c1 significantly reduces AITC- and capsaicin-induced pain and inflammation in mice. Electrophysiology recordings in Xenopus oocytes expressing rat TRPA1 channel revealed that HCIQ2c1 binds to open TRPA1 and prevents its transition to closed and inhibitor-insensitive ‘hyperactivated’ states. NMR study of the 15N-labeled recombinant HCIQ2c1 analog described a classical Kunitz-type structure and revealed two dynamic hot-spots (loops responsible for protease binding and regions near the N- and C-termini) that exhibit simultaneous mobility on two timescales (ps–ns and μs–ms). In modelled HCIQ2c1/TRPA1 complex, the peptide interacts simultaneously with one voltage-sensing-like domain and two pore domain fragments from different channel’s subunits, and with lipid molecules. The model explains stabilization of the channel in the open conformation and the restriction of ‘hyperactivation’, which are probably responsible for the observed analgetic activity. HCIQ2c1 is the third peptide ligand of TRPA1 from sea anemones and the first Kunitz-type ligand of this channel. HCIQ2c1 is a prototype of efficient analgesic and anti-inflammatory drugs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxins as Marine-Based Drug Discovery, 2nd Edition)
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Figure 1

Figure 1
<p>Analgesic activity of HCIQ2c1 in vivo. (<b>A</b>) The pain threshold in the Hot plate test was detected as latency to withdraw or lick the fore or hind paw. (<b>B</b>) Time-dependent effect of HCIQ2c1 on the volume of paw subcutaneous injected with 0.05% AITC (<b>B1</b>) and Volume Growth Index (%) (<b>B2</b>). (<b>C</b>) Analgesic activity of HCIQ2c1 in a model where pain was induced by subplantar injection of 0.05% AITC. (<b>D</b>) Analgesic activity of HCIQ2c1 in a model where pain was induced by subplantar injection of 6 µg/mouse capsaicin. The pain threshold was detected as: (<b>C1</b>,<b>D1</b>) latency to pain-related response or nociceptive behavior (first licking, tucking, scratching, flicking, or biting the injected hind paw), (<b>C2</b>,<b>D2</b>) time spent tucking the injected paw, (<b>C3</b>,<b>D3</b>) the number of licking the injected paw, and (<b>C4</b>,<b>D4</b>) time spent licking. HCIQ2c1 or saline buffer (control) was administrated intramuscularly 60 min before start of the test (<b>A</b>), or AITC (<b>B</b>,<b>C</b>) or capsaicin (<b>D</b>) injection. Data are presented as mean ± S.E.M. (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 7). * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05, ** <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01, and *** <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.001 indicate significant differences between the control and HCIQ2c1 groups according to one-way ANOVA/Dunnett’s multiple comparisons test.</p>
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<p>Recombinant HCIQ2c1 affects the diclofenac-evoked currents in <span class="html-italic">X. laevis</span> oocytes expressing rat TRPA1 in the experiment with 30-s HCIQ2c1 preincubation (<b>A</b>,<b>B</b>) and does not affect the currents in the experiment with 90-s pre-pulse of the agonist and second simultaneous 90-s HCIQ2c1+diclofenac pulse (<b>C</b>,<b>D</b>). (<b>A</b>,<b>C</b>) Average current traces normalized to the amplitude of the currents in the time interval labelled “norm.” (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 12 (<b>A</b>), <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 6–7 (<b>C</b>), different oocytes were recorded, S.E.M. range is shown as the shade around the trace). Three (<b>A</b>) or two (<b>C</b>) consecutive responses (Control, HCIQ2c1, Wash) were measured on each oocyte at 5 min intervals. Direction of the current is shown by the labels “OUT” and “IN”. The application of compounds is shown by bars above the current traces. The amplitude of responses was measured at time points labeled “test”. The concentrations of diclofenac and HCIQ2c1 were 1 mM and 10 µM, respectively. (<b>B</b>,<b>D</b>) The normalized current amplitudes (mean ± S.E.M.). n.s., not significant. * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 and ** <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01 indicate significant differences between the “HCIQ2c1” and “Control” data groups with the same direction of currents based on one-sample (<b>B</b>, OUT) and two-sample (<b>B</b>, IN) two-sided <span class="html-italic">t</span>-tests. No significant differences were found for the data presented in panel (<b>D</b>). The non-normalized current traces for the data presented in this figure are shown in <a href="#app1-marinedrugs-22-00542" class="html-app">Figure S2</a>.</p>
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<p>Recombinant HCIQ2c1 affects the residual currents through rat TRPA1 in <span class="html-italic">X. laevis</span> oocytes after 90-s AITC pulse (<b>A</b>,<b>B</b>) and does not affect the currents in the experiment with 100-s AITC pre-pulse, the second simultaneous 100-s HCIQ2c1+AITC pulse, the third ‘readout’ 100-s AITC pulse, and the final application of the antagonist HC030031 (<b>C</b>,<b>D</b>). (<b>A</b>) Average current traces normalized to the amplitude of the currents in the time interval labelled “norm.” (<span class="html-italic">n</span> = 7–8 (<b>A</b>), <span class="html-italic">n</span> = 6–7 (<b>C</b>), each response was measured on a distinct oocyte, S.E.M. range is shown as the shade around the trace). Direction of the current is shown by the labels “OUT” and “IN”. The application of compounds is shown by bars above the current traces. The amplitude of responses was measured at time points labeled “test” or marked with arrows. The TRPA1 antagonist HC030031 was used as a negative control. The concentrations of AITC, HCIQ2c1, and HC030031 were 100 µM, 10 µM, and 50 µM, respectively. (<b>B</b>,<b>D</b>) The normalized current amplitudes (mean ± S.E.M.). * <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.05 and ** <span class="html-italic">p</span> &lt; 0.01 indicate significant differences between the “HCIQ2c1” and “Control” data groups with the same direction of currents based on two-sided <span class="html-italic">t</span>-tests. The only significant difference in panel (<b>D</b>) is the difference in residual current level after application of HC030031. The non-normalized current traces for the data presented in this figure are shown in <a href="#app1-marinedrugs-22-00542" class="html-app">Figure S3</a>.</p>
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<p>NMR data define the HCIQ2c1 secondary structure. (<b>A</b>) 2D <sup>15</sup>N-HSQC spectrum of 0.08 mM <sup>15</sup>N-labeled HCIQ2c1 (30 °C, pH 4.5). The resonances of side chain NH<sub>2</sub> groups are connected by dashed lines. The system of minor signals is shown in red color. (<b>B</b>–<b>D</b>) The ring-current contributions from the nearby aromatic side chains explain atypical up–field shifts of <sup>1</sup>H<sup>δ22</sup> Asn45 and <sup>1</sup>H<sup>N</sup> Gly38 resonances (<b>B</b>), <sup>1</sup>H<sub>2</sub>C<sup>β</sup> and <sup>1</sup>H<sub>2</sub>C<sup>γ</sup> resonances of the Lys10 side chain (<b>C</b>), and <sup>1</sup>H<sup>β3</sup> resonance of Cys56 (<b>D</b>). The secondary structure of HCIQ2c1 (<b>E</b>). Elements of the secondary structure were calculated using the STRIDE program [<a href="#B29-marinedrugs-22-00542" class="html-bibr">29</a>] from the determined spatial structure of HCIQ2c1 (see below). The β-strands are designated by arrows, α- and 3<sub>10</sub> helices by rectangles. The L<sub>1</sub> and L<sub>2</sub> loops are underlined. Possible position of the protease cleavage site is shown by red arrow. The probabilities of the residues to participate in the α-helix or β-strand (P<sub>α</sub> and P<sub>β</sub>) were calculated from the chemical shifts in the TALOS-N software [<a href="#B30-marinedrugs-22-00542" class="html-bibr">30</a>]. Asterisks indicate the residues with low amplitude of the amide proton temperature gradient (|Δδ<sup>1</sup>H<sup>N</sup>/ΔT| &lt; 4.5 ppb/°K). Small (&lt;6 Hz), large (&gt;8 Hz), and medium (others) <sup>3</sup>J<sub>H</sub><sup>N</sup><sub>H</sub><sup>α</sup> coupling constants are indicated by empty, filled triangles, and open squares, respectively. Map of NOE contacts (τ<sub>m</sub> = 100 ms) is shown as usual. (<b>F</b>) Topology of the HCIQ2c1 secondary structure. The residues possibly forming a protease binding site are marked.</p>
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<p>The spatial structure and backbone dynamics of HCIQ2c1 in aqueous solution. (<b>A</b>) Two–sided view of the HCIQ2c1 molecule. Positively charged (+His), negatively charged, hydrophobic, and aromatic residues are colored by blue, red, yellow, and green, respectively. The disulfide bonds are shown in orange. (<b>B</b>,<b>C</b>) Two-sided view of the molecular surface of HCIQ2c1. Electrostatic (<b>B</b>) and molecular hydrophobicity [<a href="#B34-marinedrugs-22-00542" class="html-bibr">34</a>] (<b>C</b>) potentials are shown. (<b>D</b>) Regions with high-amplitude mobility on the ps–ns time-scale (where S<sup>2</sup> &lt; 0.75 or <sup>15</sup>N–{<sup>1</sup>H} NOE &lt; 0.65) are shown in cyan color. (<b>E</b>) Regions with mobility on the μs–ms time-scale are shown in purple (R<sub>EX</sub> ≥ 3.0 s<sup>−1</sup> or R<sub>1</sub> × R<sub>2</sub> &gt; 20.0 s<sup>−2</sup>) and blue (3 ≥ R<sub>EX</sub> &gt; 0 s<sup>−1</sup>) colors. The residues demonstrating line-broadening due to intense μs–ms time-scale motions (Cys15 and Gly38) are shown in green color. Regions where signal doubling was observed due to mobility on the millisecond time-scale are shown in red color.</p>
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<p>Best docking solutions of the TRPA1/HCIQ2c1 complex, viewed from the extracellular side. The four subunits of the open rat TRPA1 channel are shown by differently colored surfaces (<b>A</b>–<b>D</b>). Each subunit includes a ¼ of the pore domain (PD; in center) and the voltage-sensing-like domain (VSLD; distal). The HCIQ2c1 backbone is spectrum colored from blue (<span class="html-italic">N</span>-terminus) to red (<span class="html-italic">C</span>-terminus). Disulfide bonds are shown in yellow. The glycans on the VSLDs were modeled in MD but omitted in docking.</p>
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<p>MD snapshot of the best TRPA1/HCIQ2c1 complex (5–1, see <a href="#app1-marinedrugs-22-00542" class="html-app">Table S5</a>). Colors and designations are the same as in <a href="#marinedrugs-22-00542-f006" class="html-fig">Figure 6</a>. The <span class="html-italic">N</span>-glycan groups attached to Asn749 and Asn755 on the S1–S2 loop of each VSLD are represented as sticks and colored by atom type. (<b>A</b>,<b>B</b>) Top and side view on the simulation system. Membrane lipids are shown as a surface; water and ions are omitted. In (<b>B</b>), the nearby membrane slab is hidden for clarity. (<b>C</b>,<b>D</b>) Close-up top and side views of the TRPA1/HCIQ2c1 complex. Active residues are shown as sticks and colored according to the residue type: positively charged—blue, negatively charged—red, polar—violet, hydrophobic/aromatic—green, cysteines—yellow. Channel residues are italicized and shown in thinner and lighter sticks. POPC lipids and glycine residues are shown with sticks colored by atom type.</p>
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<p>Comparison of HCIQ2c1 with other Kunitz-type peptides. (<b>A</b>) Multiple sequence alignment. Positively and negatively charged residues are indicated by blue and red squares respectively; cysteines are shown in yellow. The green arrow shows a site resistant to proteolytic cleavage, but not all listed peptides demonstrate protease inhibition activity. Cyan boxes indicate the residues involved in TRPV1 inhibition by HCRG21 and APHC1, and regions responsible for the HCIQ2c1 binding to rat TRPA1 in complex 5-1. Magenta boxes indicate the residues involved in interaction with K<sup>+</sup>-channels. Orange boxes show the residues critical for mambaquaretin-1 (MQ-1) interaction with the type-2 vasopressin receptor. Conserved disulfide bonds and secondary structure elements defining Kunitz-fold are shown. Black arrows and white box indicate the β-strands and α-helix, respectively; wavy lines show the L<sub>1</sub> and L<sub>2</sub> loops. Sequence identity with HCIQ2c1 (%), PDB codes, and root mean square deviation (RMSD) values calculated over C<sub>α</sub>-atoms in regions of conserved secondary structure (19–36, 45–57) are shown on the right. (<b>B</b>) Comparison of the spatial structures of HCIQ2c1 with other Kunitz-type peptides (see legend for color code). The backbones of the peptides are shown as ribbons, cysteines are shown in yellow, and conserved Arg/Lys residues at position P<sub>1</sub> of the protease binding site are shown as sticks.</p>
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24 pages, 5443 KiB  
Article
Efficient Numerical Modeling of Oil-Immersed Transformers: Simplified Approaches to Conjugate Heat Transfer Simulation
by Ivan Smolyanov and Evgeniy Shmakov
Modelling 2024, 5(4), 1865-1888; https://doi.org/10.3390/modelling5040097 - 2 Dec 2024
Viewed by 427
Abstract
The development of digital twins for power transformers has become increasingly important to predict possible operating modes and reduce the likelihood of faults. The accuracy of these predictions relies heavily on the numerical models used, which must be both simple and computationally efficient. [...] Read more.
The development of digital twins for power transformers has become increasingly important to predict possible operating modes and reduce the likelihood of faults. The accuracy of these predictions relies heavily on the numerical models used, which must be both simple and computationally efficient. This work focuses on creating a simplified numerical model for a template oil-immersed power transformer (100 MVA, 230/69 KV). The study investigates how the number of elements and the strategies used to set up the mesh in the domain of interest influence the results, aiming to identify the key parameters that affect the outcomes. Furthermore, a significant effect of resolving thermal boundary layers on the accurate identification of hot spots is demonstrated. Two approaches to resolving thermal boundary layers are explored in this work. This study presents a comprehensive analysis of three numerical models for conjugate heat transfer simulations, each with distinct features and computational domain compositions. The results show that the addition of extra calculation domains leads to the emergence of new vortex structures, affecting the velocity profile at the channel inlet and altering the location of hot spots. This study provides valuable insights into the configuration and composition of calculated domains in numerical models of oil-immersed power transformers, essential for the accurate prediction of hot spot temperatures and ensuring reliable operation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Finite Element Simulation and Analysis)
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Figure 1
<p>Schematic representation of an idealized 100 MVA, 230/69 kV power transformer.</p>
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<p>Sliced sketch of numerical model’s geometry.</p>
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<p>Temperature dependence of oil density.</p>
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<p>Mesh illustrating the discretization of the problem domain into sub-domains for numerical analysis. Figure (<b>a</b>) shows a general view of the mesh, highlighting the main mesh parameters. Figures (<b>b</b>,<b>c</b>) present a zoomed-in view of a section of the left channel, demonstrating the resolution of thermal boundary layers using the implicit and explicit approaches, respectively.</p>
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<p>Time-dependent maximum velocity at (<b>a</b>) the inlet of the left duct, (<b>b</b>) the middle duct and (<b>c</b>) the right duct under heat load coefficient <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mi>heat</mi> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math>. The black, orange and green colors mean the radial discretizations in 10, 20 and 30 elements, correspondingly. The solid, dotted and dashed line styles represent the azimutal discretizations in 100, 200 and 300 elements, correspondingly, for each color’s corresponding radial discretizations.</p>
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<p>The maximum temperature on the low- (<b>a</b>) and high-voltage (<b>b</b>) windings is dependent on time under the heat load coefficient <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow> <mi>h</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math>. The black, orange and green colors mean the radial discretizations in the 10, 20 and 30 elements, correspondingly. The solid, dotted and dashed line styles represent the azimutal discretizations in 100, 200 and 300 elements, correspondingly, for each color’s corresponding radial discretizations.</p>
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<p>Time-dependent maximum velocity at (<b>a</b>) the inlet of the left duct, (<b>b</b>) the middle duct and (<b>c</b>) the right duct under heat load coefficient <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mi>heat</mi> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>10</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math>. The black, orange and green colors mean the radial discretizations in 10, 20 and 30 elements, correspondingly. The solid, dotted and dashed line styles represent the azimutal discretizations in 100, 200 and 300 elements, correspondingly, for each color’s corresponding radial discretizations.</p>
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<p>The maximum temperature on the low- (<b>a</b>) and high-voltage (<b>b</b>) windings, dependent on time under the heat load coefficient <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow> <mi>h</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>10</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math>. The black, orange and green colors mean the radial discretizations in 10, 20 and 30 elements, correspondingly. The solid, dotted and dashed line styles represent the azimutal discretizations in 100, 200 and 300 elements, correspondingly, for each color’s corresponding radial discretizations.</p>
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<p>Relative differences in percent of calculated temperature and velocity. The sensitivity of temperature and velocity are measured dependent on the number of elements in the radial direction for the thermal boundary layer (<b>a</b>), flow core (<b>b</b>) and solid parts (<b>c</b>), and in the azimuthal direction (<b>d</b>). The simulation is conducted for <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow> <mi>h</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>10</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math>. The graphs are drawn with two different colors of axes for matching scales of temperature and velocity. The blue color corresponds to the velocity curve and the red to the temperature one.</p>
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<p>Velocity (<b>a</b>) and temperature (<b>b</b>) profiles at the inlet of the right channel for <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow> <mi>h</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>10</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math>, with different mesh resolutions in the thermal boundary layer: 4, 10 and 40 elements.</p>
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<p>The velocity profile at the inlet of the right channel. The simulation is conducted for <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow> <mi>h</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>10</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> and the number of mesh elements in azimuthal direction; 20, 100, 200 and 400.</p>
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<p>The average velocity at the outlets of the left (<b>a</b>), middle (<b>b</b>) and right (<b>c</b>) channels over time for heat load coefficient <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow> <mi>h</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>5</mn> <mo>,</mo> <mn>10</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math>. The velocity curves are calculated by 3 different numerical models. A detailed description of these models is provided in <a href="#sec2dot2-modelling-05-00097" class="html-sec">Section 2.2</a>.</p>
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<p>The maximum temperature in low- (<b>a</b>) and high-voltage (<b>b</b>) windings over time for heat load coefficient <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow> <mi>h</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math> = 1, 5, 10. The velocity curves are calculated by 3 different numerical models. A detailed description of these models is provided in <a href="#sec2dot2-modelling-05-00097" class="html-sec">Section 2.2</a>.</p>
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<p>Velocity distribution in the oil and temperature distribution in the solid components of the transformer, calculated using three different models. Results for <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow> <mi>h</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> are shown in subfigures (<b>a</b>–<b>c</b>), and results for <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow> <mi>h</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>10</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> are shown in subfigures (<b>d</b>–<b>f</b>).</p>
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<p>Velocity distribution in the oil and temperature distribution in the solid components of the transformer, calculated using three different models. Results for <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow> <mi>h</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> are shown in subfigures (<b>a</b>–<b>c</b>), and results for <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow> <mi>h</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>10</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> are shown in subfigures (<b>d</b>–<b>f</b>).</p>
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<p>Velocity distribution in the oil and temperature distribution in the solid components of the transformer, calculated by models #2 and #3 for different heat load coefficients: <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow> <mi>h</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> and <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow> <mi>h</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>10</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math>. The distributions are calculated by (<b>a</b>) model #2 <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow> <mi>h</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math>, (<b>b</b>) model #2 <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow> <mi>h</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>10</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math>, (<b>c</b>) model #3 <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow> <mi>h</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math> and (<b>d</b>) model #3 <math display="inline"><semantics> <mrow> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow> <mi>h</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mn>10</mn> </mrow> </semantics></math>.</p>
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<p>The magnitude of the velocity profile on the left (<b>a</b>), middle (<b>b</b>) and right (<b>c</b>) inlets and the left (<b>d</b>), middle (<b>e</b>) and right (<b>f</b>) outlets of the channel calculated by the three models for a heat load coefficient <math display="inline"><semantics> <msub> <mi>k</mi> <mrow> <mi>h</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>a</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics></math> from 1 to 10. The colors of the lines indicate the value of heat load coefficient and line styles depict the corresponding numerical model.</p>
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<p>The relative velocity deviation between the finest mesh and the one built by optimal parameters in this study.</p>
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