Threshold Effects of Relative Sea-Level Change in Intertidal Ecosystems: Empirical Evidence from Earthquake-Induced Uplift on a Rocky Coast
<p>Location of the study area on the east coast of the South Island of New Zealand.</p> "> Figure 2
<p>(<b>A</b>) Sampling setup for differencing analysis of 1 × 1 m digital elevation models derived from LiDAR data showing sampling origin points at 50 m spacing on an assessment baseline located at the approximate position of the pre-earthquake mean high water springs. 50 × 50 m analysis windows landward of this line are within the spatial extent of all LiDAR datasets. Shore-perpendicular transects extending seaward were used to associate each analysis window with the dominant substrate type in the adjacent intertidal area. Two of the field survey sites (Waipapa North and Waipapa Lagoon) are located in the inset. (<b>B</b>) Manually constrained analysis windows used to assess uplift at the Waipapa sites where block-faulting uplifted intertidal areas higher than was recorded in the analysis windows to landward on the assessment baseline. The underlying image is a difference model with the same uplift scale as (<b>A</b>) for the pre-quake—immediate post-quake period.</p> "> Figure 3
<p>Workflow for differencing analyses. (<b>A</b>) Aerial image captured concurrent with LiDAR data showing examples of surface deformation features associated with the earthquake. The acquisition date was November 2016 (immediate post-quake). (<b>B</b>) 1 × 1 m digital elevation model constructed from LiDAR data at the same date. (<b>C</b>) Example of slope mask used to constrain the analysis domain to slopes <5 degrees. (<b>D</b>) Example of differencing result for July 2012 and December 2016 ground heights, with the former subtracted from the latter.</p> "> Figure 4
<p>Regressions of uplift values obtained from all combinations of the three analysis window sizes (50 × 50 m, 50 × 200 m, 50 × 500 m) that differ in their landward dimension perpendicular to the coastline.</p> "> Figure 5
<p>Vertical displacement of the Kaikōura coast calculated for two time periods (<b>A</b>) 2012–2016 and (<b>B</b>) 2012–2018 using independent differencing analyses and a 5-degree slope constraint to control for horizontal displacement effects. The LiDAR datasets have comparable resolution but slightly different coverage. The gap in coverage at c. 35 km on the X axis is the Kaikōura Peninsula. This area was outside of the LiDAR acquisition extent in the immediate post-quake dataset (December 2016), but was included in the June 2018 acquisition, enabling the analysis of 2012 to 2018 ground-level changes for the entire study area. (<b>C</b>) Estimated vertical displacement of the entire coastline between July 2012 and June 2018. Vertical displacements recorded in national geodetic updates to the Land Information New Zealand (LINZ) survey benchmark network to November 2018 are also shown for comparison.</p> "> Figure 6
<p>Histograms of the degree of uplift experienced within a classification of four substrate types found on the Kaikōura coast for the period July 2012–June 2018. Calculations used a 50 × 50 m analysis window and a 5-degree slope constraint to control for horizontal displacement effects.</p> "> Figure 7
<p>Summary of earthquake-induced mortality by major intertidal taxa and associated bare ground changes for 12 sites that experienced various degrees of uplift on the Kaikōura coast. Colours represent the severity of changes in percentage cover from pre-earthquake values as measured in post-earthquake field surveys within the equivalent intertidal zone with the highest severity recorded over three surveys presented here.</p> "> Figure 8
<p>Impacts of uplift on the Kaikōura coast. (<b>A</b>) Waipapa Lagoon site on high tide in the post-quake landscape. Dead and dying bull kelp (<span class="html-italic">Durvillaea</span> spp.) and other brown seaweeds can be seen. The pre-quake high tide mark is at the top of the large rocks, a displacement of nearly 5 m. (<b>B</b>) Reef erosion at Wairepo six months after the earthquake. The washer was flush with the rock surface when installed immediately post-quake. (<b>C</b>,<b>D</b>) A graphic illustration of the severity of impacts on habitat-forming algae at Wairepo. Despite experiencing only modest uplift, nearly all seaweeds including <span class="html-italic">Hormosira</span> (in foreground) perished soon after the earthquake.</p> ">
Abstract
:1. Introduction
Objectives
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Data
2.3. Vertical Displacement
2.4. Tilt and Horizontal Displacement Effects
2.5. Field Surveys
2.6. Assumptions and Limitations
3. Results
3.1. Sensitivity Analyses
3.2. Degree of Uplift
3.3. Interaction between Uplift and Substrate Type
3.4. Ecological Impacts
3.5. Threshold Value for Relative Sea-Change Associated with High Mortality
3.6. Extent of Impacts across 100 km of Coast
4. Discussion
4.1. Contribution of Temporal Changes
4.2. Impact Thresholds and Contributing Factors
4.3. Stressors and Recovery Prospects
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
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Timing in Earthquake Sequence | LiDAR Acquisition Date | Supplier | Commissioning Agency | Accuracy Specification (m) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Vertical | Horizontal | ||||
pre-earthquake | Jul 2012 | Aerial Surveys Ltd. | Environment Canterbury | unknown † | unknown † |
immediate post-quake | Nov 2016 | AAM NZ Ltd. | New Zealand Transport Agency | ±0.10 | ±0.50 |
Immediate post-quake | Dec 2016–Jan 2017 | New Zealand Aerial Mapping | Land Information New Zealand | ±0.10 | ±0.50 |
18 months post-quake | Jun 2018 | AAM NZ Ltd. | Land Information New Zealand | ±0.10 | ±0.50 |
Site | Coordinates (WGS84) | Pre-Earthquake Mean Percentage Cover (%) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
X | Y | Brown | Red | Coralline | Green | Total Algae | Bare Ground | |
Oaro South | 173.5054366 | −42.5226367 | 40 | 26 | 63 | 2.1 | 131 | 14 |
Oaro North | 173.5080324 | −42.5165183 | 44 | 28 | 55 | 6.8 | 134 | 16 |
Shark Tooth North * | 173.6914398 | −42.4356525 | 22 | 4.7 | 53 | 0.5 | 80 | 20 |
Shark Tooth South | 173.690683 | −42.4328186 | 22 | 4.7 | 53 | 0.5 | 80 | 20 |
First Bay | 173.7159516 | −42.4251374 | 66 | 3.6 | 78 | 0.1 | 148 | 7 |
Wairepo | 173.7119037 | −42.4200986 | 56 | 2.2 | 39 | 0.0 | 97 | 3 |
Omihi North | 173.5250354 | −42.4885951 | 41 | 11 | 71 | 0.1 | 123 | 7 |
Omihi South * | 173.5225126 | −42.4926815 | 41 | 11 | 71 | 0.1 | 123 | 7 |
Ōkiwi North | 173.8709615 | −42.2174891 | 77 | 8.9 | 60 | 0.3 | 147 | 1 |
Waipapa South * | 173.877159 | −42.2096143 | 49 | 15 | 73 | 0.3 | 138 | 10 |
Waipapa Lagoon | 173.8775657 | −42.2045148 | 49 | 15 | 73 | 0.3 | 138 | 10 |
Waipapa North * | 173.8779818 | −42.2032321 | 49 | 15 | 73 | 0.3 | 138 | 10 |
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Orchard, S.; Fischman, H.S.; Gerrity, S.; Alestra, T.; Dunmore, R.; Schiel, D.R. Threshold Effects of Relative Sea-Level Change in Intertidal Ecosystems: Empirical Evidence from Earthquake-Induced Uplift on a Rocky Coast. GeoHazards 2021, 2, 302-320. https://doi.org/10.3390/geohazards2040016
Orchard S, Fischman HS, Gerrity S, Alestra T, Dunmore R, Schiel DR. Threshold Effects of Relative Sea-Level Change in Intertidal Ecosystems: Empirical Evidence from Earthquake-Induced Uplift on a Rocky Coast. GeoHazards. 2021; 2(4):302-320. https://doi.org/10.3390/geohazards2040016
Chicago/Turabian StyleOrchard, Shane, Hallie S. Fischman, Shawn Gerrity, Tommaso Alestra, Robyn Dunmore, and David R. Schiel. 2021. "Threshold Effects of Relative Sea-Level Change in Intertidal Ecosystems: Empirical Evidence from Earthquake-Induced Uplift on a Rocky Coast" GeoHazards 2, no. 4: 302-320. https://doi.org/10.3390/geohazards2040016
APA StyleOrchard, S., Fischman, H. S., Gerrity, S., Alestra, T., Dunmore, R., & Schiel, D. R. (2021). Threshold Effects of Relative Sea-Level Change in Intertidal Ecosystems: Empirical Evidence from Earthquake-Induced Uplift on a Rocky Coast. GeoHazards, 2(4), 302-320. https://doi.org/10.3390/geohazards2040016