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Cryptography
Volume 2
Issue 1
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Cryptography, Volume 2, Issue 1 (March 2018) – 6 articles

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16 pages, 8664 KiB  
Article
Can Ternary Computing Improve Information Assurance?
by Bertrand Cambou, Paul G. Flikkema, James Palmer, Donald Telesca and Christopher Philabaum
Cryptography 2018, 2(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography2010006 - 2 Mar 2018
Cited by 32 | Viewed by 17007
Abstract
Modern computer microarchitectures build on well-established foundations that have encouraged a pattern of computational homogeneity that many cyberattacks depend on. We suggest that balanced ternary logic can be valuable to Internet of Things (IoT) security, authentication of connected vehicles, as well as hardware [...] Read more.
Modern computer microarchitectures build on well-established foundations that have encouraged a pattern of computational homogeneity that many cyberattacks depend on. We suggest that balanced ternary logic can be valuable to Internet of Things (IoT) security, authentication of connected vehicles, as well as hardware and software assurance, and have developed a ternary encryption scheme between a computer and smartcard based on public key exchange through non-secure communication channels to demonstrate the value of balanced ternary systems. The concurrent generation of private keys by the computer and the smartcard uses ternary schemes and cryptographic primitives such as ternary physical unclonable functions. While general purpose ternary computers have not succeeded in general use, heterogeneous computing systems with small ternary computing units dedicated to cryptographic functions have the potential to improve information assurance, and may also be designed to execute binary legacy codes. Full article
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Graphical abstract

Graphical abstract
Full article ">Figure 1
<p>Conversion decimal to binary to ternary. The first row is for decimal values, the second row for binary values, the third row for balanced ternary values.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>On the left, values of 3<sup>N</sup> are expressed in ternary for N ϵ {0 to 8}; on the right, 628 in decimal is converted into ternary.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Example of multiplication (8 × 6 = 48; <b>left</b>), and division (48/8 = 6; <b>right</b>).</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>(<b>left</b>) Three balanced ternary NOT gates; (<b>right</b>) three balanced ternary XOR gates.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>(<b>left</b>) A block diagram of a half adder in binary logic; (<b>right</b>) the corresponding diagram in balanced ternary logic.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Generic architecture showing a server and connected autonomous vehicles. Ternary computing units are inserted in each device for ternary cryptographic protection.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Block diagram of a secure microcontroller with heterogeneous computing units, ternary memory blocks, and physically unclonable functions.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>Block diagram of the experimental set up to study the public key distribution with ternary tables. The tables are stored in the server, and in the smartcard.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Picture of the algorithm of the key distribution showing the public key, message digest, mask, and private key in hexadecimal.</p> Full article ">Figure 10
<p>Picture of the cryptographic table. Addresses 1 to 32 are selected from the hash digest message. The 16 trits extracted at each address (in green), are used to generate the private key.</p> Full article ">Figure 11
<p>Picture of the addresses are ranked in order from left to right (1 to 32). The 16 trits extracted at each address are shown top to bottom. The trits in green generate the private key.</p> Full article ">Figure 12
<p>Picture of additional randomness to extract 512 trits from the cryptographic tables. The cells selected to generate the private keys, in green in this table, are scattered randomly.</p> Full article ">Figure 13
<p>Simplified pipeline for transforming C code to ternary machine code.</p> Full article ">Figure 14
<p>Vision of computing eco system employing heterogeneous binary/ternary functional units.</p> Full article ">
20 pages, 837 KiB  
Article
Evaluating the Efficiency of Physical and Cryptographic Security Solutions for Quantum Immune IoT
by Jani Suomalainen, Adrian Kotelba, Jari Kreku and Sami Lehtonen
Cryptography 2018, 2(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography2010005 - 7 Feb 2018
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 12727
Abstract
The threat of quantum-computer-assisted cryptanalysis is forcing the security community to develop new types of security protocols. These solutions must be secure against classical and post-quantum cryptanalysis techniques as well as feasible for all kinds of devices, including energy-restricted Internet of Things (IoT) [...] Read more.
The threat of quantum-computer-assisted cryptanalysis is forcing the security community to develop new types of security protocols. These solutions must be secure against classical and post-quantum cryptanalysis techniques as well as feasible for all kinds of devices, including energy-restricted Internet of Things (IoT) devices. The quantum immunity can be implemented in the cryptographic layer, e.g., by using recent lattice-based key exchange algorithms NewHope or Frodo, or in the physical layer of wireless communication, by utilizing eavesdropping-resistant secrecy coding techniques. In this study, we explore and compare the feasibility and energy efficiency of selected cryptographic layer and physical layer approaches by applying an evaluation approach that is based on simulation and modeling. In particular, we consider NewHope and Frodo key exchange algorithms as well as novel physical layer secrecy coding approach that is based on polar codes. The results reveal that our proposed physical layer implementation is very competitive with respect to the cryptographic solutions, particularly in short-range wireless communication. We also observed that the total energy consumption is unequally divided between transmitting and receiving devices in all the studied approaches. This may be an advantage when designing security architectures for energy-restricted devices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Physical Security in a Cryptographic Enviroment)
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Figure 1
<p>A passive threat model: a physical layer eavesdropper with quantum capabilities in the future.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>An active threat model: a physical layer man-in-the-middle attacker with existing quantum capabilities.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Simplified NewHope and Frodo key agreement protocols (based on [<a href="#B5-cryptography-02-00005" class="html-bibr">5</a>,<a href="#B6-cryptography-02-00005" class="html-bibr">6</a>]).</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Concatenated low-density parity check (LDPC)-polar coding for multiple-input, multiple-output orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (MIMO-OFDM) system.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Bit-error-rate performance of (1248, 1040) low-density parity check (LDPC) code.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>The ABSOLUT performance evaluation approach for quantum immune key exchange approaches for Internet of Things platforms.</p> Full article ">
19 pages, 993 KiB  
Article
Fault Attacks on the Authenticated Encryption Stream Cipher MORUS
by Iftekhar Salam, Leonie Simpson, Harry Bartlett, Ed Dawson and Kenneth Koon-Ho Wong
Cryptography 2018, 2(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography2010004 - 30 Jan 2018
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 9774
Abstract
This paper investigates the application of fault attacks to the authenticated encryption stream cipher algorithm MORUS. We propose fault attacks on MORUS with two different goals: one to breach the confidentiality component, and the other to breach the integrity component. For the fault [...] Read more.
This paper investigates the application of fault attacks to the authenticated encryption stream cipher algorithm MORUS. We propose fault attacks on MORUS with two different goals: one to breach the confidentiality component, and the other to breach the integrity component. For the fault attack on the confidentiality component of MORUS, we propose two different types of key recovery. The first type is a partial key recovery using a permanent fault model, except for one of the variants of MORUS where the full key is recovered with this model. The second type is a full key recovery using a transient fault model, at the cost of a higher number of faults compared to the permanent fault model. Finally, we describe a fault attack on the integrity component of MORUS, which performs a forgery using the bit-flipping fault model. Full article
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<p>Generic Diagram of MORUS.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Inducing Permanent Fault at the Last Step of the Initialization Phase of MORUS-640.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Inducing Permanent Fault at the Last Step of the Initialization Phase of MORUS-1280.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Fault based Forgery Attack on MORUS</p> Full article ">
12 pages, 749 KiB  
Technical Note
On the Cryptographic Features of a VoIP Service
by Dimitrios Alvanos, Konstantinos Limniotis and Stavros Stavrou
Cryptography 2018, 2(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography2010003 - 19 Jan 2018
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 13721
Abstract
Security issues of typical Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) applications are studied in this paper; in particular, the open source Linphone application is being used as a case study. An experimental analysis indicates that protecting signalling data with the TLS protocol, which unfortunately [...] Read more.
Security issues of typical Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) applications are studied in this paper; in particular, the open source Linphone application is being used as a case study. An experimental analysis indicates that protecting signalling data with the TLS protocol, which unfortunately is not always the default option, is needed to alleviate several security concerns. Moreover, towards improving security, it is shown that a VoIP application may operate over a virtual private network without significantly degrading the overall performance. The conclusions of this study provide useful insights to the usage of any VoIP application. Full article
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Figure 1
<p>A direct Linphone call.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>The two Linphone Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) accounts, (<b>a</b>) with Transport Layer Security (TLS) and (<b>b</b>) without TLS respectively.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Repetitive ghost calls.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Ghost calls that do not force a call ring due to the TLS.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Identifying ZRTP communication when TLS is not used.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>The two VPN connections (the user <span class="html-italic">exlax</span> resides outside our LAN, whereas the user <span class="html-italic">dimitris</span> resides in our LAN).</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>An example of writing down SAS instead of speaking it loudly.</p> Full article ">
2 pages, 172 KiB  
Editorial
Acknowledgement to Reviewers of Cryptography in 2017
by Cryptography Editorial Office
Cryptography 2018, 2(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography2010002 - 16 Jan 2018
Viewed by 7728
Abstract
Peer review is an essential part in the publication process, ensuring that Cryptography maintains high quality standards for its published papers.[...] Full article
31 pages, 1621 KiB  
Article
Multi-Factor Authentication: A Survey
by Aleksandr Ometov, Sergey Bezzateev, Niko Mäkitalo, Sergey Andreev, Tommi Mikkonen and Yevgeni Koucheryavy
Cryptography 2018, 2(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/cryptography2010001 - 5 Jan 2018
Cited by 252 | Viewed by 52788
Abstract
Today, digitalization decisively penetrates all the sides of the modern society. One of the key enablers to maintain this process secure is authentication. It covers many different areas of a hyper-connected world, including online payments, communications, access right management, etc. This work sheds [...] Read more.
Today, digitalization decisively penetrates all the sides of the modern society. One of the key enablers to maintain this process secure is authentication. It covers many different areas of a hyper-connected world, including online payments, communications, access right management, etc. This work sheds light on the evolution of authentication systems towards Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA) starting from Single-Factor Authentication (SFA) and through Two-Factor Authentication (2FA). Particularly, MFA is expected to be utilized for human-to-everything interactions by enabling fast, user-friendly, and reliable authentication when accessing a service. This paper surveys the already available and emerging sensors (factor providers) that allow for authenticating a user with the system directly or by involving the cloud. The corresponding challenges from the user as well as the service provider perspective are also reviewed. The MFA system based on reversed Lagrange polynomial within Shamir’s Secret Sharing (SSS) scheme is further proposed to enable more flexible authentication. This solution covers the cases of authenticating the user even if some of the factors are mismatched or absent. Our framework allows for qualifying the missing factors by authenticating the user without disclosing sensitive biometric data to the verification entity. Finally, a vision of the future trends in MFA is discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biometric and Bio-inspired Approaches in Cryptography)
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Graphical abstract

Graphical abstract
Full article ">Figure 1
<p>Conceptual authentication examples.</p> Full article ">Figure 2
<p>Evolution of authentication methods from SFA to MFA.</p> Full article ">Figure 3
<p>Main operational challenges of MFA.</p> Full article ">Figure 4
<p>Current and emerging MFA sensors for vehicles.</p> Full article ">Figure 5
<p>Lagrange secret sharing scheme.</p> Full article ">Figure 6
<p>Reversed method based on the Lagrange polynomial.</p> Full article ">Figure 7
<p>Trusted authority assistance in authentication when user is missing two factors.</p> Full article ">Figure 8
<p>MFA system mode. <math display="inline"> <semantics> <msub> <mi>P</mi> <mrow> <mi>T</mi> <mi>H</mi> </mrow> </msub> </semantics> </math> is the selected threshold.</p> Full article ">Figure 9
<p>Biometric MFA for the airport scenario.</p> Full article ">
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