Open AccessArticle

Triazole Modified Tetraiodothyroacetic Acid Conjugated to Polyethylene Glycol, a Thyrointegrin α_vβ₃ Antagonist as a Radio- and Chemo-Sensitizer in Pancreatic Cancer

The Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Albany College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Rensselaer, NY 12144, USA

Institute of Engineering in Medicine, University of California, San Diego, CA 92093, USA

Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.

Biomedicines 2022, 10(4), 795; https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines10040795

Submission received: 10 March 2022 / Revised: 16 March 2022 / Accepted: 17 March 2022 / Published: 29 March 2022

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pancreatic Cancer: From Mechanisms to Therapeutic Approaches)

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Abstract

Thyroid hormone L thyroxine stimulates pancreatic carcinoma cell proliferation via thyrointegrin αvβ3 receptors, and antagonist tetraiodothyroacetic acid (tetrac) inhibits cancer cell growth. Chemically modified bis-triazole-tetrac conjugated with polyethylene glycol (P-bi-TAT) has higher binding affinity to αvβ3 receptors compared to tetrac. We investigated the antiproliferation effect of P-bi-TAT in pancreatic cancer cells (SUIT2) and its radio- and chemo-sensitizing roles in a mouse model of pancreatic cancer. P-bi-TAT treatment increased tumor-targeted radiation-induced cell death and decreased tumor size. P-bi-TAT acted as a chemo-sensitizer and enhanced the 5-fluorouracil (5FU) effect in decreasing pancreatic tumor weight compared to 5FU monotherapy. Withdrawal of treatment continued the tumor regression; however, the 5FU group showed tumor regrowth. The mechanisms of the anti-cancer activity of P-bi-TAT on SUIT2 cells were assessed by microarray experiments, and genome-wide profiling identified significant alterations of 1348 genes’ expression. Both down-regulated and up-regulated transcripts suggest that a molecular interference at the signaling pathway-associated gene expression is the prevalent mode of P-bi-TAT anti-cancer activity. Our data indicate that non-cytotoxic P-bi-TAT is not only an anti-cancer agent but also a radio-sensitizer and chemo-sensitizer that acts on the extracellular domain of the cell surface αvβ3 receptor.

Keywords:

pancreatic cancer; radiation; chemotherapy; radiation resistance; chemo-resistance; angiogenesis; tumor relapse; thyrointegrin α_vβ₃ antagonist

1. Introduction

Pancreatic cancer is the fourth leading cause of cancer-associated death in the US and highly prone to metastasis [1]. To improve survival of patients with pancreatic cancer, chemotherapy and/or radiation are used, and radiotherapy has been used as a non-invasive treatment in the management of advanced pancreatic cancer to achieve local control and pain relief [2,3,4]. Common chemotherapy regimens mainly include cytotoxic agents, such as gemcitabine, FOLFIRINOX, paclitaxel, and 5-fluorouracil (5FU), which is also used as a radio-sensitizer [5,6,7]. However, many pancreatic cancer patients show a poor response to chemotherapy and/or radiation, which is attributed to the rapid development of pre-existing or acquired chemo-resistance, resulting in deficient drug uptake and resistance to radiotherapy [2,6,8,9]. Several mechanisms associated with the chemo-resistance have been proposed, including increased tumor DNA repair and decreased apoptosis, leading to increased drug efflux or decreased drug influx [10].

The cell surface integrin α_vβ₃ receptor for thyroid hormone L-thyroxine (T₄), which we call thyrointegrin α_vβ₃, is the initiation site for T₄-induced angiogenesis and cancer cell proliferation [11,12,13]. It has been reported that, in pancreatic, breast, and lung cancers, α_vβ₃ modulates cancer cell sensitivity to antitumor drugs in conferring a survival advantage, leading to chemo-resistance [14,15,16]. Integrin α_vβ₃ has also been linked to radioresistance in prostate cancer cells [17,18,19] and is highly expressed and increases cancer cell proliferation in different types of cancers, such as pancreatic, lung, glioma, breast, and colorectal tumors, but not in normal and non-dividing cells [18,20,21,22,23]. Previously, we reported that α_vβ₃ antagonist tetraiodothyroacetic acid (tetrac) prevents radiation-induced DNA repair in the brain cancer (U87) cells exposed to radiation [22,24] and promotes retention of chemotherapeutic drugs in neuroblastoma, osteosarcoma, and breast cancer cell lines [25]. Tetrac is a deaminated analog of thyroid hormone and blocks cancer cell proliferation [26]. Chemically modified forms of tetrac, including tetrac covalently bound to lactic-co-glycolic acid nanoparticle (NDAT) and a polymeric antagonist containing two tetrac groups (P-bi-TAT), effectively improve the antiproliferative activity in different cancer cells and increase apoptosis [20,22,27]. The P-bi-TAT molecule consists of two tetrac molecules covalently bound through triazoles to polyethylene glycol (PEG) to improve its affinity binding to thyrointegrin α_vβ₃ receptor and is thus restricted from nuclear translocation, preventing the undesirable genomic action of tetrac [28]. Tetrac and NDAT inhibit DNA repair post-irradiation [22,24], which also enhances retention of chemotherapeutic agents, subsequently radio-sensitizing and chemo-sensitizing cancer cells [25]. We observed previously the radio-sensitizer effect of NDAT in tumor-targeted radiation in human pancreatic adenocarcinoma xenografts resulting in enhancing anti-cancer activity [27].

Integrin α_vβ₃ is not expressed in most normal (non-malignant) tissues/cells and normal pancreatic or prostate or brain tissues but highly expressed in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma, glioblastoma, and prostate cancers [29,30,31,32]. In normal non-malignant cells, metabolism is largely regulated in mitochondria by T3; however, in cancer cells with the overexpression of activated integrin α_vβ₃, a second mechanism appears to be implicated in the control of metabolism [33]. We have previously shown that the chemically modified thyroid hormone analogue receptor on the integrin P-bi-TAT downregulates the expression of a panel of genes important to cancer cell respiration [28,33]. We have demonstrated that the chemically modified or nano-formulation tetrac was safe and tolerable at high doses in mice, with no histopathological changes in the organs and minimal systemic effects [34]. The in vitro effect of thyroid hormone analogue tetrac on α_vβ₃ function in normal cells appears to be limited [33].

Here, we investigated the role of P-bi-TAT on radiation and chemotherapeutic agent-induced resistance in pancreatic cancer cell xenografts. We studied P-bi-TAT’s anti-cancer efficacy on pancreatic cancer (SUIT2-luc) cell viability. This was followed by systemic P-bi-TAT administration to mice bearing human pancreatic xenografts after tumor-targeted radiation, and we analyzed its role as a radio-sensitizer on SUIT2-luc tumor growth. We further explored P-bi-TAT’s role as a chemo-sensitizer of 5FU on human pancreatic xenografts and detected a significant reduction in tumor weight after 3 weeks of combination therapy. We also noticed no relapse in tumors after discontinuation of chemotherapy for 2 weeks. In addition, microarray analysis supported the anti-cancer function of P-bi-TAT on SUIT2 cells by the process of transcription genes modulations essential for cancer cell growth. Our data demonstrate that P-bi-TAT is effective as both a radio-sensitizer and a chemo-sensitizer against subcutaneous (s.c.) human SUIT2-luc pancreatic cancer xenografts in mice.

2. Materials and Methods

Growth medium DMEM, fetal bovine serum (FBS), penicillin/streptomycin, trypsin 5FU, and TRI reagent were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA). Vibrant MTT cell proliferation assay kit was purchased from Life Technologies Corporation (Carlsbad, CA, USA), and fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) conjugated antibody of integrin α_vβ₃ was purchased from BD Biosciences (San Jose, CA, USA). Xeno Light D-luciferin was purchased from Perkin Elmer (Billerica, MA, USA). PEG conjugated tetraiodothyroacetic acid (P-bi-TAT) was synthesized at the Pharmaceutical Research Institute, as described by Rajabi et al. [28].

2.1. Cancer Cell Line

The human pancreatic cancer cell (SUIT2-luc) expressing luciferase gene was a generous gift from MD Anderson Cancer Center (Houston, TX, USA). Cells were grown in culture media in a humidified incubator at 37 °C and 5% CO₂ in DMEM with 10% (v/v) FBS, antibiotics. Cancer cells were trypsinized, counted, pelleted, and resuspended in medium for in vitro or animal studies.

2.2. Integrin α_vβ₃ Expression with Flow Cytometry

Expression of α_vβ₃ was evaluated as described previously [27] using a FACSAria flow cytometer (BD Biosciences), treating SUIT2-luc cells with P-bi-TAT (10 µg/mL), and exposing to 1 Gy or 5 Gy radiation dose in a Faxitron CP-160 (Faxitron Bioptics LLC, Tucson, AZ, USA).

2.3. MTT Assay

Cell proliferation/viability was measured with the MTT assay as previously described [35] and per the manufacturer’s protocol. Briefly, cells were incubated with P-bi-TAT (0, 1, 3,10, 30, or 100 µM), and, after 24 h, cell viability was assessed with MTT assay by absorbance measurements. Absorbance values were adjusted with blank wells with medium. The viability of control cells was set to 100%.

2.4. Animal Studies

P-bi-TAT Radio-Sensitization Study

All procedures followed for animal care and handling were conducted in accordance with the protocol approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC), University at Albany, State University of New York (SUNY). Immunodeficient female NCr nude homozygous mice aged 5–6 weeks and weighing 20–25 g were purchased from Taconic Biosciences, Inc. (Germantown, NY, USA). Animals were housed (5 per cage) at the SUNY animal facility (Rensselaer, NY, USA) in laminar airflow cabinets maintained in sterile conditions in HEPA-filtered cages under pathogen-free conditions with 12 h light/12 h dark schedule (Figure 1). Prolab Isopro RMH3000 irradiated rodent chow (Lab Diet, St. Louis, MO, USA) was provided ad libitum. Tumor-targeted radiation (1 Gy or 5 Gy) was provided with the Faxitron CP-160 unit [27].

2.5. Cancer Cell Implantation

On the day of SUIT2-luc implantation, mice were anesthetized with isoflurane (5%) and injected (1–2 million cells/implant in 100 µL of medium) s.c. into the posterior left and right sides. Tumor width and length were estimated with a Vernier caliper, and the volume was calculated using the standard formula (L X W²)/2. Tumors were allowed to grow to an average volume of 200 mm³, and animals were randomized 6 animals/treatment group. Treatment groups include: (i) control (PBS), (ii) control + 1 Gy (iii) control + 5 Gy, (iv) P-bi-TAT (3 mg/kg body weight), (v) P-bi-TAT + 1 Gy, and (vi) P-bi-TAT + 5 Gy. For radiation, animals were anesthetized by injection with ketamine/xylazine (100 mg/kg) using a 27-gauge needle into the posterior flank region, and right-side tumor was subjected to radiation 3 times during the treatment period. No radiation for the left side tumor and used as an internal control. Animals were terminated after 21 days of treatment and tumors were collected for weighing and histopathological analysis. Hematoxylin- and eosin (H & E)-stained paraffin embedded tumor sections were coded to avoid the knowledge of the treatment conditions for blinded interpretation and measured with stage micrometer. Percentage of visible vs. necrotic tumor sections was estimated visually for five fields and averaged per tissue section as described previously [36].

2.6. P-bi-TAT Chemo-Sensitization of 5-Fluorouracil (5FU)

This animal study was conducted at the animal facility of the Veteran Affairs Medical center (Albany, NY, USA) in accordance with the IACUC guidelines for humane animal treatment and according to the current guidelines. Immunodeficient female NCr nude homozygous mice aged 5–6 weeks weighing 20–25 g were purchased from Taconic Biosciences, Inc. Mice were housed 5 animals per cage and maintained under specific pathogen-free conditions and controlled conditions of temperature (20–24 °C) and humidity (60–70%) and 12 h light/dark cycle with ad libitum access to water and food.

Implantation of SUIT2-luc cells was performed as described above. Treatment started when the average tumor volume was 200 mm³ and bioluminescent signals were detected with an in vivo imaging system (IVIS^®, Perkin Elmer, Boston, MA) and randomized the mice (10 animals/group). Treatment groups: control (PBS); P-bi-TAT monotherapy (3 mg/kg body weight); 5FU monotherapy (10 mg/kg body weight); and P-bi-TAT + 5FU combination therapy. Treatments were administered s.c. daily for 21 days. There were two experiments conducted with these treated groups: (i) the 21 days’ treatment (ON) then terminated and analyzed, and (ii) the same 21 days’ treatment followed by discontinuation of treatment for 14 days (ON + OFF). 5 mice from each ON group were used to continue in the ON + OFF groups. At the end of each experiment, mice carrying SUIT2-luc tumors were injected with Xenolight D-luciferin substrate to emit visual light signal that was evaluated using the IVIS, and the signals were measured to monitor tumor growth and development. After humane termination of the mice, the tumors were excised and weighed and imaged ex vivo (ON groups at 21 days, ON + OFF groups at 21 + 14 days). Photographic and luminescence images were taken at constant exposure time. Xenogen IVIS^® Living Image software version 4.5 was used to quantify non-saturated bioluminescence in regions of interest (ROI). Light emission between 5.5 × 10⁶–7.0 × 10¹⁰ photons was assumed to be indicative of viable luciferase-labeled tumor cells, and emissions below this range were considered as background. Bioluminescence was quantified as photons/second for each ROI. The photon flux from the tumor was proportional to the number of light-emitting live cells.

2.7. Microarray Studies

SUIT2-luc pancreatic cancer cells were treated with 30 µM or vehicle (PBS) and cultured for 24 h (n = 3). Cells were lysed in TRI reagent solution and microarray studies were performed at the Center for Functional Genomics at the University at Albany. In brief, RNeasy Plus Mini Kit (Qiagen Inc. Valencia, CA, USA) was used to extract RNA, and cDNA was prepared using the SMART-Seq v4 Ultra Low Input RNA kit (Takara, Mountain View, CA, USA). Agilent Bioanalyzer (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA) used for microarray processing. Gene expression profiling experiments were performed using the Affymetrix microarray analytical platform. Samples were processed according to the standard Affymetrix RNA labeling protocol and processed for hybridization employing the Clariom™ S human array platform (Affymetrix, Santa Clara, CA, USA). Three independent biological replicates of control and treated samples were concurrently interrogated in gene expression profiling analyses.

2.8. Genome-Wide Gene Expression Profiling Analysis

Microarrays were scanned on a GeneChip 3000 7G scanner using Affymetrix GeneChip Command Console Software (AGCC). Transcriptome Analysis Console Software (TAC v3.0.1.5) was used to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Briefly, the CEL files were summarized using the SST-RMA algorithm in TAC, and the normalized data were subjected to one-way ANOVA with a Benjamin Hochberg False Discovery Rate correction included (p < 0.05). A 1.5-fold expression change cut-off was used to select entities that were statistically differentially expressed between the conditions being compared (treated and untreated groups). Workflow of the microarray analyses as described [37,38,39].

Gene set enrichment analyses (GSEA) of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were carried out using the Enrichr bioinformatics platform, and Enrichr API (January 2018 through June 2021 releases) [40] was used to test genes of interest for functional categories for identification and characterization of human-specific regulatory networks governed by human-specific transcription factor-binding sites was used as described [41,42,43], and functional enhancer element [44,45] 13,824 genes associated with 59,732 human-specific regulatory sequences [46] 8405 genes associated with 35,074 human-specific neuroregulatory single-nucleotide changes [47] and 8384 genes regulated by stem cell-associated regulatory sequences [48] were assessed. Initial GSEA entail interrogations of each specific set of DEGs (all statistically significant DEGs (up-regulated and down-regulated) were analyzed using 29 distinct genomic databases, including comprehensive pathway enrichment gene ontology (GO).

2.9. Statistical Analysis

In terms of nominal p values and adjusted p values (corrected for multiple hypothesis testing), the statistical metrics were calculated by Enrichr software, and they represent a product of the significance estimate and the magnitude of enrichment (combined score c = log(p) × z, where p is the Fisher’s exact test p-value and z is the z-score deviation from the expected rank). p values < 0.05 were considered significant.

3. Results

3.1. Integrin α_vβ₃ Expression

The expression of integrin α_vβ₃ was upregulated in 30% of the SUIT2-luc cells compared to the unstained cells, and there was no difference in expression when treated with P-bi-TAT (10 µg/mL). Similarly, there were no statistically significant changes in the integrin levels when the cells were exposed to 1 Gy or 5 Gy radiation compared to non-radiated cells (data not shown).

3.2. Inhibitory Effect of P-bi-TAT on SUIT2-Luc Cells

To further analyze the biological activity of P-bi-TAT on pancreatic cancer cells, the MTT assay for cell viability was performed after 24 h of exposure. P-bi-TAT at 1, 3, and 10 µM had no effect on cell viability, as with untreated (10 µM) SUIT2-luc cells. However, the effect of P-bi-TAT was observed from 30 µM (~25%), and, at 100 µM, the SUIT2-luc cells showed a 50% decrease in viability (p < 0.01) compared to untreated cells (Figure 2A).

3.3. P-bi-TAT Monotherapy and Tumor-Targeted Radiation

The tumors were initiated in the mice by s.c. injection of human SUIT2-luc cells, and treatment with P-bi-TAT (1, 3, and 10 mg/kg body weight) showed a dose-dependent inhibition of tumor growth.

In the radiation study, we observed inhibition of growth of the irradiated tumors but not of the contralateral tumors. Similarly, there was a substantial reduction in tumor weight in the right-side tumor (with 1 Gy or 5 Gy) compared to left side tumors (no radiation) between the P-bi-TAT treated animals. All the untreated tumors increased with time (21 days) and reached an average of 0.425 gm. There was a significant reduction in tumor weight in the groups treated with P-bi-TAT (monotherapy) at 3 and 10 mg/kg body weight (Figure 2B) compared to the controls. Treatment with 3 mg/kg P-bi-TAT plus 1 Gy or 5 Gy radiation showed a statistically significant decrease (p < 0.001) in tumor weight compared to the untreated controls or P-bi-TAT monotherapy groups (Figure 2C). However, there was no difference between P-bi-TAT plus 1 Gy and 5 Gy tumor weights. Even with a high dose of tumor-targeted radiation, the mice were healthy and continued to gain weight until the end of the study.

The cell viability of excised tumors was validated by histopathological assessment and showed increased cell death (Figure 2D,E) in the P-bi-TAT and radiation combination therapy compared to untreated or P-bi-TAT monotherapy. Examination of the tumor sections showed 80% or more of dead cells with necrotic areas and lesions in P-bi-TAT and radiation combination (p < 0.001) (Figure 2E).

3.4. Chemo-Sensitizing Effect of P-bi-TAT on 5FU Therapy

The ex vivo excised tumor bioluminescent signals decreased after 21 days of treatment (ON) with P-bi-TAT and 5FU combination therapy compared to 5FU monotherapy (Figure 3A). There was a continued decrease in the signal intensity after discontinuation of P-bi-TAT and 5FU combination therapy compared to 5FU monotherapy. There were more red luminescent signals (indication of live cells) in the 5FU monotherapy group after discontinuation of treatment for 14 days (ON + OFF), indicating regrowth of the tumor.

The quantitative ex vivo imaging of tumors using IVIS provided precise quantitation of cell death due to treatment and was indicated by a reduction in the bioluminescent signals (Figure 3B,C), an indication of fewer viable cancer cells. In the ON group at the end of 21 days of daily treatment, the decreased tumor bioluminescent signal intensity was consistent with the decreased tumor weight (Figure 3D). The tumor weight was decreased (p < 0.001) in the P-bi-TAT treated animals compared to the control or 5FU at the end of 21 days. However, the P-bi-TAT and 5FU combination therapy significantly (p < 0.001) decreased the tumor growth compared to the control or 5FU monotherapy. In the ON + OFF group, decreased tumor bioluminescent signal (Figure 3C) was also consistent with decreased tumor weight (Figure 3E). There was a continuous reduction in the tumor weight due to P-bi-TAT monotherapy, yet P-bi-TAT and 5FU combination therapy was more significant (p < 0.001). However, the tumor weight was increased when 5FU monotherapy was discontinued (ON + OFF), as with the untreated group, with high bioluminescent signal intensity, indicating increased viable cancer cells. Compared to P-bi-TAT monotherapy, 5FU combination therapy showed decreased tumor signal intensities (Figure 3B,C). The tumor weight reduction was high in combination therapy compared to P-bi-TAT monotherapy (p < 0.01) (Figure 3E), and this indicated that the cell death in the P-bi-TAT monotherapy tumors might not be accompanied by a reduction in the tumor weight as measured by physical means.

3.5. Gene Expression Analysis

Overview of Mechanisms of Anti-Cancer Activities of the P-bi-TAT

We carried out genome-wide expression profiling analyses of SUIT2 cells treated with non-toxic doses of the P-bi-TAT. Microarray experiments identified 1348 genes’ expressions were significantly altered by P-bi-TAT (1.5-fold cutoff for both up- and down-regulated transcripts). There were 523 down-regulated and 825 up-regulated differentially expressed genes (DEGs) identified, and 59 significantly affected potential biological and mechanistic relevance signaling pathways (Figure 4 and Figure S1 and Table 1), including VEGFA-VEGFR2; MAPK; WNT; EGF-EGFR; hepatocyte growth factor receptor; DNA damage response pathways; integrin-mediated cell adhesion; TGF-beta signaling; apoptotic signaling; TNFSF10 and TNF receptors; hormone (TSH; CRH; AR; insulin; prolactin; glucocorticoid receptor) and developmental pathways (interactome of polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2); BDNF, embryonic development and pluripotency signaling; endoderm differentiation signaling (Figure 4 and Tables S1 and S2).

3.6. Naïve Pluripotency Network Marked Majority of the P-bi-TAT Target Genes

Many significantly affected pathways of potential biological relevance and stem cell signal transduction pathways operating in SUIT2 cells that may be significantly affected by the P-bi-TAT treatment include Wnt signaling in pluripotency (p = 0.0039) and embryonic stem cells (ESC) pluripotency signaling (p = 0.014). We identified 904 genes (67%; p = 1.318 × 10⁻⁴³) of the naïve pluripotency network of human preimplantation embryos, the expression of which is significantly affected by the P-bi-TAT treatment (Figure 3C,D). We noted other affected pathways of high relevance targeted by P-bi-TAT: P-bi-TAT: DNA IR-damage and cellular response via ATR (WP4016; p = 4.73 × 10⁻⁷) and DNA IR-double strand breaks and cellular response via ATM (WP3959; p = 1.56 × 10⁻⁴ (Figure 3C,D). Similarly, 860 protein-coding genes (64%; p = 1.47 × 10⁻¹⁹) targeted by the P-bi-TAT treatment represent human cancer survival predictor genes (Supplementary Summary S2; Supplementary Table S3), and we identified 28-gene expression signature (GES), reflecting a transcriptional reversal of cancer cells’ survival and death from cancer phenotypes: P-bi-TAT-induced increased expression of genes of favorable clinical outcomes and decreased expression of unfavorable clinical outcomes (Supplementary Summary S2; Supplementary Table S4).

3.7. Differential GSEA of Various Sub-Sets of the P-bi-TAT-Target Genes

To gain further insights into the biological and molecular functions of genes expression, which was significantly affected by P-bi-TAT treatment, gene set enrichment analyses (GSEA) of 1348 DEGs (Supplementary Table S5), 825 up-regulated DEGs, 523 down-regulated DEGs (Supplementary Table S8), and smaller DEG signatures identified by GSEA of all DEGs (Supplementary Tables S6 and S7) were carried-out using the Enrichr bioinformatics platform applied to 29 genomics databases (see Methods). The GSEA of 1348 DEGs targeted by the P-bi-TAT treatment in SUIT2 cells (Table 2) identified 517 DEGs (326 up-regulated and 191 down-regulated DEGs) with significant associations with 1185 records of human malignancies reported as top-scoring significantly enriched records (Figure 5A–D and Table 2, Table 3 and Table S6). Gene ontology (GO) analyses of 517 human cancer-associated genes affected by P-bi-TAT treatment in cancer cells reveal potential mechanisms of anti-cancer activity (Figure 5 and Supplementary Table S6). GO Molecular Function and GO Cellular Component 2021 analyses identified several P-bi-TAT target genes in protein–protein interactions engaged in signal transduction and intracellular organelle assembly processes for structural–functional integrity of a cell (Figure 5). We noted protein kinase binding, protein serine/threonine kinase activity; DNA binding; microtubule binding and tubulin binding; ubiquitin protein ligase binding and ubiquitin-like protein ligase binding; intracellular membrane-bounded organelle, non-membrane-bounded organelle; several enzymatic activities (Figure 5 and Supplementary Table S6). GO Biological Process 2021 identified the following processes among the top-scoring significantly enriched records: DNA repair and double-strand beak repair, cellular response to DNA damage, regulation of apoptotic, DNA metabolic and replication, regulation of transcription and regulation of cell proliferation, and protein phosphorylation. Detailed examinations of the GSEA revealed that 517 P-bi-TAT-target genes captured all the significantly enriched records of signaling pathways affected by the P-bi-TAT treatment in metastatic human pancreatic carcinoma (Figure 5A–D and Table 2 and Table S6). Consistent with this conclusion, the GSEA of the remaining P-bi-TAT target genes did not identify any significantly enriched records of potential biological or mechanistic relevance (data not shown).

3.8. Identification of Transcriptional Regulatory Networks Associated with P-bi-TAT Target Genes

The GSEA of 517 P-bi-TAT target genes revealed multiple significant associations (Table 2), suggesting a multidirectional regulatory connectivity with transcriptional networks (ARCHS4 TF co-expression database in human tissues; database of TF perturbations followed by expression analyses; database of TF protein–protein interactions) and engagement in protein–protein interactions (PPI) during the assembly of multimolecular complexes (database of PPI hub proteins engaged in interactions with 50 proteins) as well as intracellular membrane-bound and non-membrane bound organelles (Figure 6A and Tables S6 and S7).

We recorded 70 TF-encoding genes representing up-stream transcriptional regulators of the P-bi-TAT target genes (469 of 517 DEGs; 91%) (Figure 6B,C and Table 3, Tables S6 and S7). These TF-encoding genes manifest highly significant co-expression patterns across human tissues with P-bi-TAT target genes (ARCHS4 TFs Co-expression database in Human Tissues) and significantly affect the expression of P-bi-TAT target genes following targeted genetic perturbations of individual TF-encoding genes (database of TF Perturbations Followed by Expression). Interestingly, the expression of 10 of these up-stream regulatory TFs is significantly altered by the P-bi-TAT treatment, indicating direct or indirect drug effects on the up-stream regulatory network of 70 TF-encoding genes. This network of 70 TF-encoding genes manifests the apparent auto-regulatory features because targeted interrogations of the database of TF perturbations followed by expression revealed that genetic perturbations of 67 of 70 TF-encoding genes (96%) significantly affect the expression of at least one other TF-encoding gene of this regulatory transcriptional network. Interconnected features of regulatory networks targeted by the P-bi-TAT treatment of human metastatic pancreatic carcinoma cells are illustrated by observations that the expression of 15 TFs and 6 PPI hub proteins that are engaged in PPIs with 70 up-stream regulatory TFs is significantly affected by the P-bi-TAT treatment. Furthermore, 11 TFs engaged in PPIs with 70 up-stream regulatory TFs regulate their expression. Finally, 65 TFs engaged in PPIs with 70 up-stream regulatory TFs regulate the expression of the P-bi-TAT target genes. The validity of this model was confirmed by a follow-up GSEA of the genes encoding 125 TFs and 63 PPI hub proteins engaged in PPIs with 70 up-stream regulatory TFs (Figure 6B,C and Supplementary Table S7).

4. Discussion

The thyroid hormone analogue receptor on the extracellular domain of thyrointegrin α_vβ₃ modulates the state of radio-sensitivity [18] and chemo-sensitivity [25] of tumor cells. Based on the association of α_vβ₃ to tumor progression and cancer cell chemo-resistance and radio-resistance, we studied the action of its high-affinity binding antagonist P-bi-TAT as a radio-sensitizer to overcome cancer cell radio-resistance in human pancreatic SUIT2-luc xenograft. Further, we analyzed its activity in pancreatic tumor treatment, either as an anti-cancer agent and/or as a chemo-sensitizer, to improve the therapeutic index of the cytotoxic antitumor drug 5FU.

P-bi-TAT blocked SUIT2-luc cell growth as thyroid hormone T₄ stimulated pancreatic carcinoma cell proliferation in vitro via its integrin α_vβ₃ receptor [49]. P-bi-TAT also inhibited SUIT2-luc xenograft size in mice by more than 50% after the 21-day treatment, which is consistent with the results of unmodified tetrac and NDAT [20,27]. Our in vivo data confirmed that P-bi-TAT significantly enhanced the inhibitory effect of tumor-targeted radiotherapy of SUIT2-luc xenograft growth, indicating that the chemically modified tetrac prevents repair of double-strand DNA breaks induced by radiation in cancer cells, as reported with unmodified tetrac [18]. P-bi-TAT treatment plus the lowest dose (1 Gy) of radiation showed increased reduction in tumor weight and cancer cell viability by histological estimation and enhanced necrosis compared to untreated mice. Our results are comparable to our previous finding with NDAT in pancreatic xenografts [27]. Further, a relatively small number of α_vβ₃ molecules are expressed in activated, non-dividing, and non-malignant cells compared to cancer cells, and P-bi-TAT may not make non-malignant cells more radio-sensitive [13,21,25], thereby limiting actions of systemically administered P-bi-TAT to tumor cells and tumor-associated blood vessel cells, showing a unique pre-clinical safety profile in mice.

Radiation and standard cytotoxic drugs combination therapy had no beneficial effect on the long-term survival rates of pancreatic cancer patients because cancer cells develop radio- and chemo-resistance [4]. In the present study, P-bi-TAT showed not only an anti-cancer effect but also acts as a radio-sensitizer on pancreatic tumors. There are reports of blocking the blood supply to a prostate tumor after radiation to prevent growth using endothelial cell α_vβ₃ antagonists (cyclic peptides arginyl-glycyl-aspartic acid peptide for cell adhesion); however, these antagonists have no impact on cancer cell death [19,50].

P-bi-TAT inhibited pancreatic xenograft growth, showing its high affinity to α_vβ_3, and initiated pro-apoptotic action, such as unmodified tetrac and NDAT [11,20,25,29]. P-bi-TAT monotherapy exhibited a 50% inhibition of SUIT2-luc xenograft tumor growth, which is comparable to its effect on glioblastoma tumors, as we reported previously [28]. To assess its role as a chemo-sensitizer, we chose the commonly used cytotoxic chemotherapeutic agent 5FU, which has been reported to develop chemo-resistance in cancer cells by blocking DNA repair [51]. 5FU combination therapy with P-bi-TAT significantly enhanced tumor suppression, and there were fewer viable cancer cells compared to 5FU monotherapy. High-affinity binding α_vβ₃ antagonist P-bi-TAT maintained and enhanced 5FU retention time in the pancreatic cancer cells and boosted cellular susceptibility to apoptosis and suppressed tumor growth, as was reported with the use of unmodified tetrac in doxorubicin-resistant human breast tumors [25]. Moreover, there was no relapse in the SUIT2-luc tumor growth, with the complete loss of live cells in the xenografts, when combination therapy was discontinued, demonstrating the P-bi-TAT efficacy as a potent chemo-sensitizer.

Further, the α_vβ₃ receptor of aggressive pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma controls different signaling pathways, contributing to cancer cell chemo-resistance status [52], and we reported that P-bi-TAT hindered the action of thyrointegrin and enhanced the pancreatic cancer cells’ chemo-sensitivity. We observed that the response rate of 5FU monotherapy compared to combination therapy on pancreatic tumors was low, similar to Christensen et al. [51], with only a 10 to 15% reduction by 5FU in colon and breast tumors, suggesting that it induced mutation, leading to tumor growth and chemo-resistance. We also observed that the withdrawal of 5FU monotherapy increased pancreatic cancer cell viability and tumor weight, indicating 5FU induced resistance. Hercbergs et al. reported that the clinical progress of far-advanced pancreatic cancer is slowed by withdrawal of endogenous T₄ [53], and our data suggest that P-bi-TAT blocks the receptor and the uptake of T₄, leading to the reduction in tumor growth. Reports suggest that 5FU and platinum-based drug resistance arises due to nucleotide excision repair [10].

The receptor of α_vβ₃ is highly specific for the control of tumor cell proliferation, tumor cell defense mechanisms, and regulation of angiogenesis by various growth factors [24], and chemically modified tetrac and P-bi-TAT molecules are potent anti-cancer agents that affect the transcription of more pro-apoptosis and cell division-relevant genes than tetrac [12,53]. The P-bi-TAT effect initiated at α_vβ₃ involves multiple mechanisms, such as pro-apoptotic activity, disruption of cell cycle, interference with repair of DNA breaks, and disruption of transcription of genes essential to several cancer cell survival pathways [12,23]. This was confirmed by genomic analysis that both down-regulated and up-regulated transcripts were detected amongst pathway-specific DEGs, suggesting that a molecular interference mechanism at the signaling pathway-associated gene expression levels may represent one of the prevalent modes of the P-bi-TAT anti-cancer activity. In addition, the expression profiles of the genes comprising the naïve pluripotency transcriptional network of the MLME cells of human preimplantation embryos [44,46,47,48] are distorted by the P-bi-TAT treatment. Changes in expression of the cancer survival predictor genes have been associated with increased likelihood of cancer patients’ survival or death after therapy [37,38,39,54]. These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that P-bi-TAT therapy interferes with functions of stemness signaling pathways operating in human metastatic pancreatic carcinoma cells. Gene set enrichment analyses (GSEA) of 904 naïve pluripotency network genes revealed significantly affected signaling pathways of potential mechanistic relevance, highlighting biological functions of pancreatic cancer cells and patients’ treatment, considering the GES of 28 survival predictor genes had a 2.4 to 2.8 higher survival after therapy, suggesting that P-bi-TAT therapy may have a clinically beneficial effect. Genes of the human preimplantation embryo naïve pluripotency network and cancer survival predictor genes comprise a marked majority of the P-bi-TAT target genes in metastatic human carcinoma cells: altogether, these two categories of genes represent a marked majority of the DEGs (1154 of 1348; 85.6%) identified in SUIT2 pancreatic carcinoma cells treated with the P-bi-TAT. We identified 904 genes (67%; p = 1.318 × 10⁻⁴³) of the naïve pluripotency transcriptional network operating in multi-lineage markers expressing (MLME) and human preimplantation embryos, which were significantly affected by the P-bi-TAT treatment that interferes with the gene expression of this transcriptional network [44,46,47,48]. Consistent with the hypothesis that P-bi-TAT target genes may affect hundreds of regulatory events implicated in the exceedingly broad net of interconnected molecular functions and biological processes, protein products of the up-stream regulatory TF-encoding genes are significantly enriched in protein–protein interactions, with a network of 125 TFs and 63 PPIs hub proteins. Collectively, these observations indicate that altered expression of P-bi-TAT target genes may affect hundreds of regulatory events implicated in the exceedingly broad net of interconnected molecular functions and biological processes.

P-bi-TAT has been developed to act primarily at the extracellular domain of the integrin α_vβ₃ of tumor cells and dividing endothelial cells and alters the expression or regulation of cell death pathway members in combination with a cytotoxic drug (5FU). It has no homologies of thyrointegrin receptors in the nucleus of normal cells and of cancer cells [28]. Unmodified tetrac is not a replacement for P-bi-TAT because tetrac gains access to the cell interior and cell nuclear compartment, where it is a low-grade thyromimetic rather than an antagonist [55].

Conclusion: our data showed that P-bi-TAT is an anti-cancer agent and acted as a radio-sensitizer and enhanced radiation-induced pancreatic tumor suppression. In addition, its chemo-sensitizing effect on 5FU increased the inhibition of the tumor progression, thus resulting in no relapse after the termination of the treatment regime. The genomic profile showed that P-bi-TAT modified the expression of various cancer-related genes in SUIT2-luc cells (Figure 5, Figure 6 and Figure 7 and Table 3). There is a limited effectiveness and rapid development of resistance to a variety of standard therapies with cytotoxic chemotherapeutic agents and radiation to control pancreatic tumor growth. P-bi-TAT, a non-cytotoxic anti-cancer agent, inhibited pre-clinical human pancreatic xenograft growth and, in addition, acted as a radio-sensitizer and chemo-sensitizer and enhanced tumor suppression. Our data of the non-cytotoxic anti-cancer actions of P-bi-TAT support its progression in development as a radio- and chemo-sensitizing agent to improve the treatment results for pancreatic cancer patients.

Supplementary Materials

The following are available online at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/biomedicines10040795/s1, Supplementary Summary S1: Effects of P-bi-TAT treatment on gene expression in SUIT2 human pancreatic cancer cells; Supplementary Summary S2: Human pancreatic cancer survival genes and pathways affected by the P-bi-TAT treatment; Supplementary Table S1: Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) affected by the P-bi-TAT treatment of the SUIT2 human pancreatic cancer cells; Supplementary Table S2: P-bi-TAT therapy targeted pathways in human pancreatic cancer cells; Supplementary Table S3: P-bi-TAT therapy targeted stemness and cancer survival pathways in human pancreatic cancer cells: Supplementary Table S4: Human pancreatic cancer survival gene expression signatures (GES); Supplementary Table S5: Gene Set Enrichment Analyses (GSEA) of 1386 DEGs; Supplementary Table S6: GSEA of 517 DEGs affected by the P-bi-TAT treatment of human pancreatic cancer cells; Supplementary Table S7: GSEA of 70 TF-encoding genes; Supplementary Table S8: GSEA of 841 up-regulated and 545 down-regulated P-bi-TAT DEGs.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.A.M.; methodology, T.S. and G.V.G.; software, G.V.G.; validation, T.S., S.A.M. and G.V.G.; formal analysis, T.S., G.V.G. and K.G.; investigation, T.S. and G.V.G.; resources, S.A.M.; data curation, G.G; writing—original draft preparation, T.S. and G.G; writing—review and editing, S.A.M., T.S. and G.V.G.; visualization, S.A.M. and G.V.G.; supervision, S.A.M.; project administration, S.A.M.; funding acquisition, S.A.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

Funding was received from both NanoPharmaceuticals LLC, Rensselaer, NY and from the Pharmaceutical Research Institute (PRI) at Albany College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences. We thank Dr. Sridar Chittur, Director, DNA Microarray Core Facility, University of Albany SUNY for processing microarray samples.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) approval code and date for two animal studies performed at animal facilities at Stratton VA Medical Center and University at Albany, State University of New York, Albany, NY are as follows: (1) Radio-sensitization animal study—Title of Study: Evaluation of novel anticancer strategies in mouse models Approval Code: IRBNet ID: 545017, IACUC, Stratton VA Medical Center, Albany, NY Approval Date: 01/27/2016; (2) Chemo-sanitization animal study—Title of Study: Tumor Radio-sensitization with Nano tetrac Approval Code: IACUC protocol # 14-010, IACUC, University at Albany, State University of New York, Albany, NY Approval Date: 08/01/2016.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Raw data have been deposited in PRI_GEO_Suit2-P-biTAT_07262021.tar under series GSE180896.

Acknowledgments

We thank Sridar Chittur, Director, DNA Microarray Core Facility, University of Albany SUNY for processing microarray samples.

Conflicts of Interest

S.A.M. is an inventor on all patents related to NDAT and P-bi-TAT and founder of Nanopharmaceutical LLC, which is developing anti-cancer drugs. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Flow chart of the study protocol for the in vivo and in vitro studies.

Figure 2. Effect of P-bi-TAT on human pancreatic cancer (SUIT2-luc). (A) MTT assay analysis showed a dose-dependent inhibitory effect of P-bi-TAT (1, 3, 10, 30, and µM) on SUIT2-luc cell viability after 24 h of treatment. Data represent mean ± SEM, n = 3, * p < 0.01. (B) Effect of P-bi-TAT on SUIT2-luc xenografts in athymic mouse model. There was < 50% decrease in tumor weight in the animals treated with 3 or 10 mg/kg body weight P-bi-TAT doses compared to the untreated group. Data represent mean ± SEM, n = 6 per group, ** p < 0.001, NS = not significant. (C) P-bi-TAT exhibited a radio-sensitization effect and decreased human pancreatic cancer (SUIT2-luc) xenograft weight in athymic mice. SUIT2-luc cells were implanted s.c., as described in Methods, and mice were treated with P-bi-TAT (3 mg/kg body weight of animal) daily and with 1 or 5 Gy radiation doses. P-bi-TAT along with radiation decreased tumor weight significantly (p < 0.001) compared to P-bi-TAT or radiation alone. Data represent mean ± SEM, n = 6 per group, ** p < 0.001, NS = not significant. (D) Representative H & E sections of the SUIT2-luc xenografts showed reduction in viable cells (20× magnification) in P-bi-TAT treated tissues along with radiation (1 or 5 Gy) compared to untreated (control) and non-irradiated groups. (E) P-bi-TAT radio-sensitized SUIT2-luc xenograft tumors and reduced viable cells with P-bi-TAT treatment plus radiation (1 or 5 Gy) and increased radiation-induced necrosis significantly (* p < 0.01; ** p < 0.001) compared to P-bi-TAT or radiation alone. n = 6 per group. L = left tumor (without radiation); R = right tumor (with radiation).

Figure 3. (A) P-bi-TAT acted as a chemo-sensitizer of 5 Fluorouracil (5FU) and reduced tumor bioluminescent signals in pancreatic cancer SUIT2-luc xenograft tumors. Mice with pancreatic xenografts were treated with P-bi-TAT (3 mg/kg body weight) alone or in combination with 5FU (10 mg/kg body weight), and there were 10 mice per group treated for 21 days. Five mice from each group were terminated after 21 days and tumor bioluminescent signals were imaged ex vivo with IVIS (ON treatment). There was decreased tumor bioluminescence in the combination treatment group with P-bi-TAT and 5FU compared to monotherapies. Treatment was discontinued for the remaining 5 mice in each group and monitored for another 14 days (ON + OFF treatment). Bioluminescent signals continued to decrease for 14 days in the P-bi-TAT and 5FU combination group after treatment discontinuation. There was an increase in signal intensity in 5FU monotherapy. Bioluminescent signals: red = live cells; blue/white = dead cells. IVIS bioluminescence signals were quantified for (B) ON treatment and (C) ON + OFF treatment and show the statistical significance of the P-bi-TAT monotherapy and P-bi-TAT and 5FU combination therapy compared to control (PBS) and 5FU monotherapy. (D) P-bi-TAT acted as a chemo-sensitizer of 5 Fluorouracil (5FU) and reduced pancreatic cancer SUIT2-luc xenograft tumor weight. Mice with pancreatic xenografts were treated with P-bi-TAT (3 mg/kg body weight) alone or in combination with 5FU (10 mg/kg body weight), and there were 10 mice per group and treated for 21 days (ON treatment). (E) Then, treatment was discontinued and monitored for another 14 days (ON + OFF treatment). P-bi-TAT had a continued chemo-sensitizing effect on 5FU and enhanced SUIT2-luc xenografts’ tumor weight reduction after discontinuation of the treatment for 14 days (ON + OFF). There was a significant (p < 0.001) tumor weight reduction due to the P-bi-TAT and 5FU combination therapy after discontinuation of treatment (ON + OFF) compared to monotherapy with 5FU alone. However, after withdrawal of the 5FU monotherapy, there was increased tumor weight in the ON + OFF group, indicating the regrowth of the tumor.

Figure 4. Microarray analysis of SUIT2-luc cells after 24 h of treatment with P-bi-TAT (30 µM) and compared with untreated cells using Affymetrix Protocol for Clariom S Microarrays. Effects of the P-bi-TAT treatment on gene expression in human pancreatic carcinoma cells SUIT2-luc. A total of 59 signal transduction pathways were significantly affected by treatment of human pancreatic carcinoma cells with P-bi-TAT for 24 h (Table 2; p < 0.05 statistical significance cut-off; number of affected genes from 3 to 29). (A) Twenty-five signaling pathways (p < 0.05; at least 10 affected genes; range from 10 to 29 genes). (B) Forty signaling pathways (p < 0.05; at least 4 affected genes; range from 4 to 29 genes). (C) P-bi-TAT treatment interferes with gene expression of the naive pluripotency transcriptional network operating in human metastatic pancreatic carcinoma cells SUIT2. Note that highly ordered expression profiles of genes comprising naïve pluripotency transcriptional network of human preimplantation embryos are markedly distorted by the P-bi-TAT treatment. (D) Gene set enrichment analyses (GSEA) revealed significantly affected signaling pathways of potential mechanistic relevance highlighting biological functions of pancreatic cancer cells affected by the P-bi-TAT treatment. Complete descriptions of significantly enriched phenotypic records, associated genes, and statistical metrics are reported in Supplementary Summaries S1 and S2; Supplementary Tables S1–S3.

Figure 5. (A) Expression profiles and (B–D) GSEA of 517 human cancer-associated genes affected by P-bi-TAT treatment in human pancreatic carcinoma cells. Gene set enrichment analyses (GSEA) of P-bi-TAT target genes in SUIT2 human pancreatic cancer cells identified a gene expression signature comprising 517 DEGs (191 down-regulated and 326 up-regulated genes; Panel 4A; Supplementary Table S6), expression of which is altered in multiple types of human cancers. Panel 4B shows top 10 significantly enriched records of human diseases (DisGeNET database; a total of 1185 significant records) and oncogenic pathways (MSigDB Oncogenic Signatures database; a total of 41 significant records) identified by GSEA of 517 DEGs. Panel 4C shows clustergrams of top 30 significantly enriched records of oncogenic pathways signatures (MSigDB Oncogenic Signatures database) and human diseases (DisGeNET database). Panel 4D shows visualization of 1185 significantly enriched records (large blue colored dots; adjusted p value < 0.05) from the DisGeNET database of human diseases. Small grey colored dots depict records with no significant enrichments. Each dot represents a single gene set. Similar gene sets are clustered together, reflecting overlapping patterns of gene expression changes associated with different human disease states. Complete descriptions of all significantly enriched phenotypic records, associated P-bi-TAT target genes, and corresponding statistical metrics are reported in Supplementary Table S6.

Figure 6. (A) Gene ontology (GO) analyses of 517 human cancer-associated genes affected by P-bi-TAT treatment in human pancreatic carcinoma cells reveal potential mechanisms of anti-cancer activity. Complete records of the analyses are reported in Supplementary Tables S6 and S7. DEGs, differentially expressed genes. (B) GSEA of the auto-regulatory network of 70 transcription factors regulating expression of genes affected by P-bi-TAT treatment in human pancreatic carcinoma cells. DisGeNET database of human diseases. Complete records of the analyses are reported in Supplementary Tables S6 and S7. (C) shows a model of interconnected regulatory networks affected by the P-bi-TAT treatment in human metastatic pancreatic carcinoma cells.

Figure 7. Summary of experimental and analytical protocols implemented during the investigation of therapeutic efficacy of P-bi-TAT on human pancreatic cancer.

Table 1. Signaling pathways significantly affected by the P-bi-TAT treatment of human pancreatic carcinoma SUIT2 cells.

Pathways	Number of Genes	Up Regulated	Down Regulated	p-Value
GPCR ligand binding	3	0	3	0.0000
Deubiquitination	4	4	0	0.0000
Chromatin organization	3	2	1	0.0000
Olfactory receptor activity	6	1	5	0.0000
Processing of Capped Intron-Containing Pre-mRNA	3	1	2	0.0000
Mitotic G2-G2/M phases	3	1	2	0.0001
DNA IR-damage and cellular response via ATR	17	13	4	0.0001
Transcriptional regulation by RUNX1	3	2	1	0.0003
GPCRs, Class A Rhodopsin-like	5	2	3	0.0007
IL-6 signaling pathway	9	7	2	0.0019
Benzo(a)pyrene metabolism	4	4	0	0.0020
Assembly of the primary cilium	5	4	1	0.0023
VEGFA-VEGFR2 Signaling Pathway	29	14	15	0.0024
Focal Adhesion	24	15	9	0.0031
Interactome of polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2)	5	5	0	0.0032
Wnt Signaling Pathway and Pluripotency	15	8	7	0.0039
Metabolism of carbohydrates	4	2	2	0.0042
Oncostatin M Signaling Pathway	11	5	6	0.0043
Gastric Cancer Network 2	7	7	0	0.0047
DNA Damage Response (only ATM dependent)	15	10	5	0.0047
DNA IR-Double Strand Breaks (DSBs) and cellular response via ATM	10	6	4	0.0050
Regulation of lipid metabolism by Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha)	3	2	1	0.0052
Signaling by VEGF	3	1	2	0.0052
TCF dependent signaling in response to WNT	9	4	5	0.0054
Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) signaling pathway	19	9	10	0.0068
MAPK Signaling Pathway	21	13	8	0.0077
Interleukin-11 Signaling Pathway	8	4	4	0.0083
Androgen receptor signaling pathway	13	9	4	0.0084
Integrin-mediated Cell Adhesion	14	9	5	0.0085
Wnt Signaling in Kidney Disease	7	4	3	0.0092
Wnt Signaling Pathway	10	5	5	0.0123
Human Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) signaling pathway	10	6	4	0.0123
Angiopoietin Like Protein 8 Regulatory Pathway	17	13	4	0.0132
Hepatitis C and Hepatocellular Carcinoma	9	6	3	0.0133
ESC Pluripotency Pathways	15	10	5	0.0139
TGF-beta Signaling Pathway	17	12	5	0.0139
Major pathway of rRNA processing in the nucleolus and cytosol	5	3	2	0.0142
Insulin Signaling	19	12	7	0.0170
EGF/EGFR Signaling Pathway	19	10	9	0.0170
Prolactin Signaling Pathway	11	6	5	0.0183
Cell surface interactions at the vascular wall	3	1	2	0.0190
RNA Polymerase I, RNA Polymerase III, and Mitochondrial Transcription	3	2	1	0.0194
Wnt Signaling Pathway Netpath	8	3	5	0.0197
DNA Damage Response	10	6	4	0.0238
Signaling of Hepatocyte Growth Factor Receptor	6	3	3	0.0243
Apoptosis-related network due to altered Notch3 in ovarian cancer	8	5	3	0.0244
Signaling by FGFR2	5	4	1	0.0257
HDR through Homologous Recombination (HR) or Single Strand Annealing (SSA)	4	2	2	0.0267
Glucocorticoid Receptor Pathway	10	5	5	0.0271
Endoderm Differentiation	17	11	6	0.0281
Glycogen Metabolism	6	3	3	0.0314
Corticotropin-releasing hormone signaling pathway	12	5	7	0.0358
L1CAM interactions	3	1	2	0.0359
G13 Signaling Pathway	6	6	0	0.0398
Integrated Breast Cancer Pathway	18	15	3	0.0441
MAPK6/MAPK4 signaling	4	2	2	0.0474
Apoptotic Signaling Pathway	11	7	4	0.0481
Hedgehog ‘on’ state	3	2	1	0.0491
SUMOylation of DNA damage response and repair proteins	3	3	0	0.0496

Top 59 signal transduction pathways significantly affected by the P-bi-TAT treatment are reported (expression of at least 3 genes associated with a pathway was significantly altered by the P-bi-TAT).

Table 2. Differential GSEA of distinct expression signatures of the P-bi-TAT targeted genes in human pancreatic carcinoma cells.

Database	1386 P-bi-TAT Genes	517 P-bi-TAT Genes	70 TF Genes
Transcription Factor PPIs	11	83	125
ARCHS4 TFs Coexpression in Human Tissues	214	238	117
Enrichr Submissions TF-Gene Coocurrence	1157	1538	1447
TF Perturbations Followed by Expression	276	808	38
KEGG 2021 Human	0	95	33
PPI Hub Proteins	13	139	63
BioPlanet 2019	24	321	99
DisGeNET	4	1185	1092
Jensen Disease database	4	21	35
WikiPathways 2021 Human	2	146	87
WikiPathways 2019 Mouse	0	34	16
Panther 2016	4	21	3
NCI-Nature 2016	13	107	22
MSigDB Hallmark 2020	9	27	6
Reactome 2016	24	238	64
GO Biological Process 2018	12	313	162
GO Molecular Function 2018	10	70	63
MSigDB Oncogenic Signatures	15	41	2
BioCarta 2016	2	66	16
Elsevier Pathway Collection	3	431	256

Reported values represent numbers of significantly enriched records (adjusted p-value < 0.05) identified by GSEA in corresponding classification categories; PPIs, protein–protein interactions; TFs, transcription factors.

Table 3. Top 59 (of a total of 1185) significantly enriched records of human disorders associated with altered expression of 517 genes targeted by the P-bi-TAT treatment in human pancreatic carcinoma cells.

Diseases	Overlap	p-Value	Adjusted p-Value	Odds Ratio	Combined Score
Breast Carcinoma	398/4963	5.49 × 10⁻¹⁴¹	3.29 × 10⁻¹³⁷	10.92964	3529.863
Malignant neoplasm of breast	371/5054	5.47 × 10⁻¹¹²	1.64 × 10⁻¹⁰⁸	8.030796	2057.408
Carcinogenesis	286/4065	1.07 × 10⁻⁷⁰	2.15 × 10⁻⁶⁷	5.145025	828.9084
Malignant neoplasm of lung	210/2449	1.25 × 10⁻⁶¹	1.88 × 10⁻⁵⁸	5.268231	738.7838
Primary malignant neoplasm of lung	199/2268	2.05 × 10⁻⁵⁹	2.46 × 10⁻⁵⁶	5.267008	711.7491
Malignant neoplasm of prostate	238/3239	1.07 × 10⁻⁵⁸	1.01 × 10⁻⁵⁵	4.685076	625.3619
Carcinoma of lung	207/2476	1.18 × 10⁻⁵⁸	1.01 × 10⁻⁵⁵	5.065892	675.7211
Neoplasm Metastasis	258/3920	2.57 × 10⁻⁵⁵	1.92 × 10⁻⁵²	4.303636	540.9646
Squamous cell carcinoma	173/1876	1.57 × 10⁻⁵³	1.04 × 10⁻⁵⁰	5.25055	638.4075
Mammary Neoplasms	191/2387	2.78 × 10⁻⁵⁰	1.67 × 10⁻⁴⁷	4.612146	526.2717
Prostate carcinoma	218/3145	3.95 × 10⁻⁴⁸	2.15 × 10⁻⁴⁵	4.123994	450.1387
Prostatic Neoplasms	144/1554	8.61 × 10⁻⁴⁴	4.30 × 10⁻⁴¹	4.9484	490.6863
Carcinoma of bladder	123/1162	7.18 × 10⁻⁴³	3.31 × 10⁻⁴⁰	5.541769	537.7696
Bladder Neoplasm	124/1217	1.73 × 10⁻⁴¹	7.41 × 10⁻³⁹	5.308731	498.2656
Malignant neoplasm of urinary bladder	120/1144	2.38 × 10⁻⁴¹	9.52 × 10⁻³⁹	5.448776	509.6689
Malignant neoplasm of ovary	155/2026	4.06 × 10⁻³⁷	1.52 × 10⁻³⁴	4.030492	337.7308
Colorectal Cancer	204/3298	9.59 × 10⁻³⁷	3.38 × 10⁻³⁴	3.452375	286.3225
Colorectal Carcinoma	190/2931	1.68 × 10⁻³⁶	5.46 × 10⁻³⁴	3.548985	292.343
Non−Small Cell Lung Carcinoma	163/2243	1.73 × 10⁻³⁶	5.46 × 10⁻³⁴	3.852522	317.2388
Liver carcinoma	213/3593	6.29 × 10⁻³⁶	1.89 × 10⁻³³	3.338075	270.5622
Tumor Progression	154/2090	6.50 × 10⁻³⁵	1.86 × 10⁻³²	3.845135	302.6827
Ovarian Carcinoma	157/2203	5.89 × 10⁻³⁴	1.61 × 10⁻³¹	3.716749	284.384
Malignant neoplasm of stomach	164/2398	1.73 × 10⁻³³	4.51 × 10⁻³¹	3.587153	270.6057
Adenocarcinoma	134/1712	1.32 × 10⁻³²	3.30 × 10⁻³⁰	3.969843	291.4102
Melanoma	163/2454	9.86 × 10⁻³²	2.34 × 10⁻²⁹	3.455299	246.6867
Stomach Carcinoma	160/2378	1.02 × 10⁻³¹	2.34 × 10⁻²⁹	3.488645	248.964
Leukemia	140/1941	2.03 × 10⁻³⁰	4.51 × 10⁻²⁸	3.645897	249.2702
Glioma	148/2211	8.32 × 10⁻²⁹	1.78 × 10⁻²⁶	3.386759	218.9745
Lung Neoplasms	103/1177	1.54 × 10⁻²⁸	3.17 × 10⁻²⁶	4.264448	273.1115
Colon Carcinoma	142/2091	3.72 × 10⁻²⁸	7.45 × 10⁻²⁶	3.40664	215.1544
Pancreatic carcinoma	132/1869	1.25 × 10⁻²⁷	2.42 × 10⁻²⁵	3.502788	216.9869
Solid Neoplasm	84/840	4.13 × 10⁻²⁷	7.74 × 10⁻²⁵	4.805491	291.9395
Malignant tumor of colon	134/2001	7.83 × 10⁻²⁶	1.42 × 10⁻²³	3.301179	190.8401
Glioblastoma	131/1937	1.31 × 10⁻²⁵	2.32 × 10⁻²³	3.32181	190.312
Malignant neoplasm of pancreas	127/1846	1.91 × 10⁻²⁵	3.28 × 10⁻²³	3.365147	191.5312
Ovarian neoplasm	86/938	4.06 × 10⁻²⁵	6.77 × 10⁻²³	4.363327	245.0556
Leukemia, Myelocytic, Acute	120/1703	7.48 × 10⁻²⁵	1.21 × 10⁻²²	3.417928	189.8723
Squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck	84/934	5.74 × 10⁻²⁴	9.06 × 10⁻²²	4.252607	227.577
Secondary malignant neoplasm of lymph node	99/1271	1.62 × 10⁻²³	2.50 × 10⁻²¹	3.700355	194.1775
Lymphoma	100/1307	3.55 × 10⁻²³	5.32 × 10⁻²¹	3.631097	187.699
Malignant Neoplasms	105/1438	8.65 × 10⁻²³	1.27 × 10⁻²⁰	3.470073	176.2865
Central neuroblastoma	112/1655	1.07 × 10⁻²¹	1.53 × 10⁻¹⁹	3.215285	155.2548
Renal Cell Carcinoma	99/1348	1.24 × 10⁻²¹	1.73 × 10⁻¹⁹	3.457629	166.445
Neuroblastoma	113/1698	2.56 × 10⁻²¹	3.49 × 10⁻¹⁹	3.158438	149.7545
Pancreatic Neoplasm	66/665	3.67 × 10⁻²¹	4.89 × 10⁻¹⁹	4.613543	217.0849
Colorectal Neoplasms	85/1073	1.28 × 10⁻²⁰	1.67 × 10⁻¹⁸	3.683262	168.716
Brain Neoplasms	64/646	1.70 × 10⁻²⁰	2.17 × 10⁻¹⁸	4.588213	208.8636
Epithelial ovarian cancer	94/1329	2.09 × 10⁻¹⁹	2.61 × 10⁻¹⁷	3.283491	141.2317
Cervi × carcinoma	83/1105	1.04 × 10⁻¹⁸	1.28 × 10⁻¹⁶	3.45456	143.0298
Multiple Myeloma	91/1312	3.13 × 10⁻¹⁸	3.75 × 10⁻¹⁶	3.194953	128.7784
Esophageal carcinoma	62/685	6.41 × 10⁻¹⁸	7.54 × 10⁻¹⁶	4.125095	163.3051
Esophageal Neoplasms	59/637	1.48 × 10⁻¹⁷	1.71 × 10⁻¹⁵	4.213426	163.2773
Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma	62/701	1.98 × 10⁻¹⁷	2.24 × 10⁻¹⁵	4.018394	154.5595
Stomach Neoplasms	68/835	3.54 × 10⁻¹⁷	3.93 × 10⁻¹⁵	3.69556	139.9903
Primary malignant neoplasm	76/1032	1.12 × 10⁻¹⁶	1.22 × 10⁻¹⁴	3.339813	122.6713
Endometrial Carcinoma	67/840	1.77 × 10⁻¹⁶	1.90 × 10⁻¹⁴	3.603766	130.7091
Glioblastoma Multiforme	67/854	4.05 × 10⁻¹⁶	4.26 × 10⁻¹⁴	3.53701	125.362
Mesothelioma	43/383	5.23 × 10⁻¹⁶	5.41 × 10⁻¹⁴	5.107651	179.7217
Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia	78/1120	9.40 × 10⁻¹⁶	9.56 × 10⁻¹⁴	3.144465	108.8003

Results of GSEA of 517 P-bi-TAT targeted genes employing the DisGeNET database of human diseases are reported. Top 59 of a total of 1185 significantly enriched records (adjusted p value < 0.05) are shown.

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Sudha, T.; Godugu, K.; Glinsky, G.V.; Mousa, S.A. Triazole Modified Tetraiodothyroacetic Acid Conjugated to Polyethylene Glycol, a Thyrointegrin α_vβ₃ Antagonist as a Radio- and Chemo-Sensitizer in Pancreatic Cancer. Biomedicines 2022, 10, 795. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines10040795

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Sudha T, Godugu K, Glinsky GV, Mousa SA. Triazole Modified Tetraiodothyroacetic Acid Conjugated to Polyethylene Glycol, a Thyrointegrin α_vβ₃ Antagonist as a Radio- and Chemo-Sensitizer in Pancreatic Cancer. Biomedicines. 2022; 10(4):795. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines10040795

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Sudha, Thangirala, Kavitha Godugu, Gennadi V. Glinsky, and Shaker A. Mousa. 2022. "Triazole Modified Tetraiodothyroacetic Acid Conjugated to Polyethylene Glycol, a Thyrointegrin α_vβ₃ Antagonist as a Radio- and Chemo-Sensitizer in Pancreatic Cancer" Biomedicines 10, no. 4: 795. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines10040795

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Sudha, T., Godugu, K., Glinsky, G. V., & Mousa, S. A. (2022). Triazole Modified Tetraiodothyroacetic Acid Conjugated to Polyethylene Glycol, a Thyrointegrin α_vβ₃ Antagonist as a Radio- and Chemo-Sensitizer in Pancreatic Cancer. Biomedicines, 10(4), 795. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines10040795

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Triazole Modified Tetraiodothyroacetic Acid Conjugated to Polyethylene Glycol, a Thyrointegrin αvβ3 Antagonist as a Radio- and Chemo-Sensitizer in Pancreatic Cancer