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Review

Unraveling the Valorization Potential of Pineapple Waste to Obtain Value-Added Products towards a Sustainable Circular Bioeconomy

by
Sarah L. Paz-Arteaga
1,
Edith Cadena-Chamorro
1,
Ricardo Goméz-García
2,*,
Liliana Serna-Cock
3,
Cristóbal N. Aguilar
4 and
Cristian Torres-León
5,6,*
1
Faculty of Sciences, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Medellín 3840, Antioquia, Colombia
2
CBQF—Centro de Biotecnologia e Química Fina—Laboratório Associado, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica Portuguesa, 4169-005 Porto, Portugal
3
Faculty of Engineering and Administration, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Palmira 763537, Valle del Cauca, Colombia
4
Food Research Department, School of Chemistry, Universidad Autonoma de Coahuila, Saltillo 25280, Coahuila, Mexico
5
Research Center and Ethnobiological Garden, Universidad Autonoma de Coahuila, Viesca 27480, Coahuila, Mexico
6
Agri-Food and Agro-Industrial Bioeconomy Research Group, Universidad Autonoma de Coahuila, Unidad Torreón, Torreón 27276, Coahuila, Mexico
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Sustainability 2024, 16(16), 7236; https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167236
Submission received: 9 July 2024 / Revised: 15 August 2024 / Accepted: 20 August 2024 / Published: 22 August 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research Progress and Evaluation Challenges of By-Product and Waste Valorization)
Browse Figures
Graphical abstract
"> Figure 1
<p>By-product generation chain (crown, core, and shell) and food loss (stem and leaves) of pineapple.</p> "> Figure 2
<p>Pineapple by-product fermentation process.</p> ">
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The pineapple (Ananas comosus) is one of the most commercialized tropical fruits worldwide. Its high processing and consumption generate huge quantities of organic waste and severe economic and environmental issues. Embracing the circular bioeconomy concept, this fruit waste can be applied as a bioresource (raw material) for the obtention of a wide range of high-valued biocompounds by applying innovative and ecofriendly technologies. In this paper, we critically describe pineapple-derived waste, from their chemical composition to their functional and biological properties, as well as the latest advances on valorization technologies, particular solid and submerged fermentations. Notably, this article highlights the possibility of using pineapple waste to obtain bioactive compounds such as bromelain, phenolic compounds, and dietary fiber, which have important biological properties such as antioxidant, anticancer, antimicrobial, and prebiotic capacities. Indeed, pineapple wastes can become valued materials by using green and biotechnological technologies that allow us to maximize their potential and might avoid wastage and environmental issues. Nevertheless, it is necessary to further investigate the biomolecules present in the waste derived from different pineapple varieties and their health beneficial effects as well as emerging technologies in order to obtain a full spectrum of natural value-added compounds that industries and society demand today.

Graphical Abstract">

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

The pineapple (Ananas comosus) belongs to the Bromeliaceae family. It is a monocotyledonous plant with 46 genera and 2000 species, approximately. Its fruit is considered an infructescence and ends in a set of leaves; it is fleshy, fibrous, and yellow; its hue depends on the variety [1].
The pineapple is one of the most important tropical fruits globally, and the main producing areas are South and Central America and Southeast Asia. Indonesia is the largest pineapple producer in the world among more than 80 countries that produce this fruit, with a production of 3,203,775.15 tons in 2022, followed by the Philippines and Costa Rica [2]. Much of the pineapple produced in these countries is exported to the United States and the European Union.
The agricultural production and processing of pineapple generate a lot of waste. In developing countries, the biowastes are taken to incinerators or landfills, mostly located in vulnerable areas, generating health problems [3]. Additionally, the biowastes generate bacterial decomposition, volatilization, and chemical reactions, causing high rates of methane and carbon dioxide; also, strong odors are produced due to the formation of esters, hydrogen sulfide, organosulfides, alkylbenzenes, limonene, and other hydrocarbons. As well as affecting people’s health, these gases contribute to global warming [4].
In this sense, the integral management of biowastes contributes to the development of sustainable businesses and the environment [5]. In recent years, the European Union has implemented strategies to promulgate the circular bioeconomy in the energy security [6] Pineapple wastes are made up of important nutritional and functional components, among which carbohydrates, insoluble dietary fiber (cellulose and hemicellulose), and soluble dietary fiber (pectin, gums, and oligosaccharides) stand out [7]. Due to their chemical composition, food loss and by-products can be used in the food and pharmaceutical industry in the production of high-added-value compounds such as phenolic compounds [8], strong and inexpensive fibers [9], and enzymes [5]. Also, these biowaste can be used in biotechnology in the synthesis of organic acids [10] and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) [11], the energetic industry [12], and the environmental industry (bioremediation) [13]. The increase in the interest of different industries in polyphenols suggests there will be an increase in their price from 2021 to 2026 of 6.47%.
Pineapple waste also has a high biological activity; phenolic compounds and specific proteases extracted from this biological material have been used as antioxidant, antimicrobial [14], anticancer [15], antidiabetic [16], and anti-inflammatory agents [17].
Laftah & Wan Abdul Rahman [18], Dungani et al. [19], Asim et al. [20], Silva et al. [21], Campelo et al. [22], Verma et al. [23] and Verma [24] only highlight the different uses of the fiber obtained from the leaves of pineapple plantations. Aditiya et al. [25] theoretically show the amount of biofuel that can be made using pineapple peel, and Kringel et al. [26], Roda & Lambri [27], Moreno-González & Ottens [28], Ong et al. [29], Campos et al. [30], Campos et al. [31], Rico et al. [7] and Banerjee et al. [32] reported some applications and extraction methods of added-value compounds using pineapple by-products as the raw material. Kumar et al. [33] and Chaudhary & Singh [34] published a complete review on the conversion of pineapple waste to bioethanol, biobutanol, biohydrogen, and biomethane along with animal feed and vermicompost. However, recent information on the chemical composition, biological activity, and biotechnological applications of pineapple food loss and by-products of the various varieties cultivated in the world is still lacking [35]. Hamzah et al. [36] provide a comprehensive overview of the pineapple’s commercial use and waste production, with an emphasis on biofuel production. Recently, Sarangi et al. [37] described the technologies developed to achieve zero waste in pineapple wastes in the different productive sectors and Dhar et al. [38] critically described the current and future perspectives and challenges associated with using pineapple. However, no review articles currently exist that delineate the potential for pineapple waste valorization within the context of the “circular bioeconomy”. The objective of this review is to present a detailed description of pineapple wastes and their chemical and functional potential for the sustainable production of value-added products, embracing the concept of the “circular bioeconomy”.

2. Pineapple Waste

From field harvesting and post-harvest activities to household consumption, large amounts of waste are found in pineapples [39].
In the plantations, after the harvest of the fruits, the first food losses are produced. The pineapple plant must be renewed every two years due to its low profitability, but some farmers recommend replanting the pineapple after the first fruit due to its growth cycle. This process depends on cultural and agricultural practices [40]. At this point, the food losses are stem and leaves, which together form a gold honey pineapple plant, also known as MD2, which is approximately 3.2 kg [41]. In Costa Rica, pineapple cultivation produces about four million tons of residual biomass every two years, mainly leaves [40]. The food losses produced are eliminated to prepare the soil for the new planting; the most common disposal practice corresponds to drying in the sun and then burning [42].
In the post-harvest stages, the fruits are marketed fresh or taken to industries for further transformation. Fresh-marketed fruits must meet certain quality standards, depending on the country where the fruits are marketed. If these fruits do not meet these standards, they add to the percentage of food losses. Many pathogenic organisms can attack pineapple crops and prevent the fruits from being consumed; for example, Phytophthora [43], nematodes Meloidogyne javanica and Meloidogyne incógnita [44], insect Mealybug [45], the Strymon basilides, the Elaphria nucicolora, and the Metamasius dimidiatipennis [46].
In pineapple agro-industrialization, the by-products generated in processing depend on the pineapple variety and the final product. During processing, the crown is removed first, followed by the shell, and finally, the core [39]. These by-products represent between approximately 50 and 60% of the total fruit, mostly made up of the peel (29–42%) and core (9.4–20%), and in smaller quantities per crown (2.7–5.9%) [7] (Figure 1).
There are no individual data on food waste in the last part of the food supply chain, household consumption. However, FAO [47] published global data on food waste, comparing developed and developing countries; in Europe and the United States, per capita food waste is between 95 and 115 kg/year, and in sub-Saharan Africa and South and Southeast Asia, it is only 6–11 kg/year.
All the waste from the food supply chain for the pineapple is shown in Figure 1, with the terms used in this review. Food loss is waste in the field, by-products are waste from industries, and households are waste from houses.

3. Nutritional Composition of Pineapple Waste

Pineapple waste contains 10% dry matter, of which 96% is organic matter, and the remaining 4% is inorganic matter [48]. These wastes are enriched raw material for many extraction processes of nutritional and functional compounds because they contain insoluble fibers, pectins, proteins, vitamins, minerals, phenolic compounds, and simple sugars and complex carbohydrates such as cellulose and hemicellulose that are potentially hydrolyzable into fermentable sugars [49].
Table 1 and Table 2 show that the main by-products of pineapple, peel and core, have high amounts of dietary fiber, cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, and a low amount of proteins, and that the fiber from the leaves of the pineapple crop contains mostly cellulose. However, the nutritional content of food losses and by-products depends mainly on the variables of the growing area and genetic factors [50].

3.1. Protein

The protein content fluctuates between 0.63 and 6.9 w/w %. This variation depends on the variety, the part of the fruit, and the conditions of the growing area (Table 1). The protein content of the by-products in pineapple is low; for this reason, mechanisms have been used to increase this nutritional value. Pineapple by-products have been widely used as a low-cost protein supplement for animal feed [55].

3.2. Lipids

In pineapple by-products, the lipid content is between 0.21 and 3.50 w/w % (Table 1). According to Morais et al. [57], pineapple by-products contain significant amounts of saturated fatty acids such as palmitic acid (174.4 ± 17.5 mg/100 g) and stearic (29.9 ± 3.4 mg/100 g), monounsaturated fatty acids like omega-9 or oleic acid (85.3 ± 14.8 mg/100 g), polyunsaturated fatty acids like omega-6 or linoleic acid (159.6 ± 14.5 mg/100 g), and omega-3 or linolenic acid (130.8 ± 25 mg/100 g).

3.3. Carbohydrates

The total carbohydrate content is between 6.65 and 83.03 w/w % (Table 1). This percentage is high concerning the content of proteins and lipids. Fresh pineapple waste is an important source of fermentable sugars. Zain et al. [10] and Abdullah & Mat [63] reported a glucose, fructose, and sucrose content of 8.24–11.74%, 9.70–12.17%, and 2.05%, respectively. In addition, these wastes have long chains of hydrolyzable monomers.
Nakthong et al. [64] reported 9% starch in pineapple stems on a wet basis. This polysaccharide contains 34.4% amylose. The characteristics of this polysaccharide make the pineapple stem a good source of resistant thermoplastic starch for food and non-food applications. Starch is a naturally occurring carbohydrate in granular form, composed of two polysaccharides: amylose and amylopectin. The granular diameters of starch vary from less than 1 μm to more than 100 μm, and the shapes vary. The different morphologies, compositions, and molecular structures allow for the different physical and functional properties of starch [64].

3.4. Minerals

As can be seen in Table 1, the ash content fluctuates between 0.9 and 10.60 w/w %. Among the main minerals in the peel, core, and pineapple leaf are the macro minerals such as calcium (57.00 mg/kg) and phosphorus (49.00 mg/kg) [51], and among the main microminerals are potassium (26.09 mg/kg) and zinc (298.18 mg/kg) [11]. Calcium is essential for the bones and teeth, and phosphorus works in energy production, while potassium and zinc regulate various organ systems and work as a cofactor, respectively [65]. However, the amount of minerals in pineapple residues and by-products fluctuates depending on the variety and part of the fruit. According to El-Demerdash et al. [66], the amount of minerals is also influenced by the state of maturity and the agronomic condition.

4. Value-Added Product of Pineapple Waste

4.1. Fibers

Table 2 shows the lignocellulosic content of each of the by-products of pineapple and the leaves of the pineapple plant, and it is observed that these organic materials have high potential as a source of fiber. Martínez et al. [67] reported in MD2 pineapple peel and core a fiber content of 75.8% on a dry basis, corresponding to insoluble (75.2%) and soluble (0.6%) fiber, with a water retention capacity of 14.6 ± 0.25 g/g, higher than that reported for mango, passion fruit, and guava residues, and an oil retention capacity of 0.7 ± 0.08 g/g.

Uses of Fibers

The fibers of pineapple leaves serve as a reinforcement for thermoplastic materials such as low-density polyethylene (LDPE) [68], polypropylene (PP), and starch/poly (lactic acid) (PLA) [33,69]. Pineapple leaves grown in Malaysia and in India (Queen variety) are used for the manufacture of Kraft paper [70], high-quality yarn (90 tex) [71], and films for agricultural applications [72].
Gnanasekaran et al. [73] and Fernandes Pereira et al. [9] used fiber from the leaves of the pineapple crop for the extraction and isolation of cellulose with high resistance and rigidity, and Putra et al. [74] used fiber from pineapple leaves to develop acoustic insulation.
Anindya et al. [75] isolated xylan from the stem of the pineapple plant to use it in conjugation with mesalamine and test its efficacy as an anti-inflammatory agent. The xylan is the most abundant hemicellulose in these structures. It is useful as a biofilm and packaging; it can act as a barrier for fats and oils and has properties such as high light transmittance, low oxygen permeability, and aroma permeability [76].
The hemicellulose content (Table 2) of pineapple peels is higher than the other by-products, such as rice straw, wheat [77], and sugarcane bagasse [78]. Banerjee et al. [32] used the high hemicellulose content of pineapple peels to extract xylooligosaccharides and xylose. This last product can be converted into xylitol, which is widely used in the food industry due to its low caloric content and sweetening power.

4.2. Phenolic Compounds

Steingass et al. [79] identified many of the phenolic compounds found in the by-products of MD2 pineapple grown in Ghana using the technology HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS (Table 3). The authors of this study coincide with the results of the analysis carried out by Brito et al. [80] with a gas chromatograph with a flame ionization detector (GC-FID). The two studies detected that the pineapple crown is characterized by containing isomeric esters of p-cumaric or ferulic acid with aldaric acids. Regarding the phenolic compounds detected in the peel, the study carried out by Steingass et al. [79] coincides with that reported by Li et al. [81]. The peel contains mainly gallic acid, catechin, epicatechin, and ferulic acid.
The type and quantity of phenolic compounds depend on different factors; variety, part of the fruit (Table 3), maturity of fruit, environmental factors such as soil type and climate, genetic factors, and processing and extraction methods. The extraction and recovery of phenols in pineapple residues is influenced by the affinity with the solvent used for this process [82]. Hossain & Rahman [83] used three different solvents for phenol extraction and found that the solvent with the best yield was methanol (21.50%), followed by ethyl acetate (4.90%) and extraction with water (4.30%).
Phenolic compounds are a group of secondary metabolites and are one of the most important biologically active phytochemicals. They have been widely studied for their biological properties, such as antioxidant activity. In recent years, their extraction from agro-industrial waste has been studied [84]. Phenolic compounds have other important biological properties, such as anti-allergenic, antiatherogenic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antithrombotic, cardioprotective, and vasodilator properties [33]. These compounds are in plants in two forms: free or linked by covalent bonds to constituents of plant cells [85].

4.3. Enzymes

Different parts of pineapple waste have been used for enzyme extraction. Coelho Silvestre et al. [86] evaluated the Perola variety pineapple peel extract as a source of proteolytic enzymes. The authors found a content of 5.76 U/mg of protein and optimal activity of these enzymes between pH 6–7 and 70 °C. Rojas et al. [5] evaluated the enzymatic content of pineapple core and crown and reported amounts of 2233.50 ± 78.86 U/mg and 36.111 ± 1.62, respectively. Although many authors agree with these data, Ketnawa et al. [87] recommend the extraction of enzymes from pineapple peel because it is the largest by-product of pineapple processing.
Bromelain is the predominant enzyme in pineapple residues. Enzymes have been reported in the stem, such as stem bromelain (EC 3.4.22.32), ananain (EC 3.4.22.31), and comosain, and in the fruit juice, bromelain from fruit (EC 3.4.22.33). Similar proteases are also present in pineapple rind, core, crown, and leaves, with the highest proteolytic activity and protein content detected in pineapple crown extract. This enzyme has many properties and has been used for various purposes; due to this wide range of applications, bromelain has a high commercial value (2400 USD/kg) [87].

5. Biological Properties of Value-Added Products

5.1. Antioxidant Capacity

As observed in Table 4, the number of phenolic compounds in pineapple by-products can fluctuate between 1.12 and 120.90 mg of gallic acid/g. More antioxidant activity studies have been carried out on pineapple peel and core than on crown; these studies show that the quantification of antioxidants present in the shell and heart are higher than those found in the crown. However, all the research authors agree that pineapple fruit processing residues are an important source of antioxidant compounds.
In the measurement of antioxidant activity, the DPPH. method allows us to understand whether the extract enriched with antioxidants can block the oxidation initiation phase due to neutralizing or inhibiting the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). In contrast, the ABTS.+ method is based on the ability of antioxidants to scavenge long-lasting radical cation ABTS.+ [92]. The DPPH. and ABTS.+ radical scavenging activity is highly varied. This could be due to differences in the phenolic combinations since the DPPH. radical scavenging activity depends on its phenolic structure and the number and location of hydroxyl groups [93] (Table 4).
Through the consumption of oxygen, the human body produces ROS, such as the superoxide anion radical, the hydroxyl radical, and hydrogen peroxide. In small proportions, these ROS can be beneficial to health. However, during oxidative stress, large amounts of ROS are produced, causing diseases like mutagenesis, and coronary cardiopathy, among other cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases [94]. The body needs antioxidant agents capable of balancing ROS. Recent research has been based on the search for natural antioxidants to replace synthetic antioxidants such as butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), which could be carcinogenic and even toxic [95]. According to Sepúlveda et al. [89], the polyphenolic compounds extracted from pineapple by-products have a powerful antioxidant activity compared to commercial antioxidants.

5.2. Antimicrobial Activity

Pineapple waste is a potential source of antimicrobial compounds [96]. Some authors have reported the antimicrobial capacity of phenolic compounds extracted from pineapple waste. Upadhyay et al. [97] reported the antimicrobial capacity of ferulic acid and syringic acid. Brito et al. [80] found antimicrobial capacity in linalool, α-terpineol, and furfural, extracted from the essential oil of pineapple crown, against Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, and Staphylococcus aureus.
Pineapple plant and fruit proteases have also been extensively studied as antimicrobial agents. [98]. Bromelain has an effect on Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Pseudomonas sp., E. coli, and S. aureus, among many other pathogenic microorganisms [99]. Abbas et al. [100] demonstrated the effectiveness of bromelain, extracted from the heart, peel, crown, and stem, against acne due to its inhibitory capacity against Propionibacterium acnés. Furthermore, Dutta & Bhattacharyya [101] demonstrated that pineapple crown extract can be used for tissue repair, wound healing, and can possibly prevent secondary infections from microbial organisms due to the action of specific proteases in this part of the plant.
In the identification of compounds of the different parts of the pineapple fruit, hydrazones have also been found [82], compounds recognized for their antimicrobial capacity [102].

5.3. Anticancer Activity

Cancer is one of the medical problems that cause the most deaths in the world. In recent years, research has been carried out to seek alternatives for the treatment of this disease that do not bring contraindications [103]. For this reason, Pauzi et al. [103] investigated in vitro the action of bromelain independently and in synergistic action with cisplatin against MDA-MB-231 human breast cancer cells, finding that the synergistic action of these two compounds has an apoptosis effect on MDA-MB-231 cells and Beuth & Braun [104] evaluated the effect of bromelain on metastasis in L-1 sarcoma cells, and found favorable results.
The effect of polyphenolic compounds in pineapple waste as an anticancer agent has also been evaluated. Rashad et al. [8] demonstrated in vitro the positive effect of extracts rich in phenolic compounds from pineapple waste against HepG2, MCF-7, A549, HL-60, and HCT116 cancer cell lines. Chen et al. [15] demonstrated the use of pineapple leaf extracts as a UV ray protector and ROS scavenger, thus confirming its possible effectiveness against skin cancer.

5.4. Antidiabetic Activity

Not only have pineapple leaves been used for the regulation of blood sugar [105] and the significant improvement of exogenous insulin sensitivity [106], but also their positive effect as an antidislipidemic has been demonstrated [16], making them a promising option for the treatment of diabetic dyslipidemia and diabetes.
Type 2 diabetes is a chronic metabolic disorder that affects more than 5% of the world’s population. However, current oral treatments have serious adverse effects [16]. Mismanagement of diabetes can trigger other medical problems, such as cardiovascular disease and damage to vital organs. Dyslipidemia is a metabolic abnormality associated with diabetes, characterized by quantitative and qualitative changes in lipids and lipoproteins [107].

5.5. Anti-Inflammatory Activity

Pineapple waste extracts have been used to treat conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, severe burns to the tongue and esophagus [17], inflammation of the colon, chronic pain, and asthma due to their anti-inflammatory potential [108]. Mondal et al. [109] evaluated methanolic extracts of pineapple leaves to reduce inflammation caused by edema in rats, finding a percentage of inhibition of inflammation of 84.93. Secor et al. [110] demonstrated the positive result of the use of bromelain in the inflammation of the respiratory tract caused by allergies.
Inflammations can be caused by different factors and occur in other parts of the body, as the accumulation and activation of inflammatory cells mediated by cytokines and chemokines can cause intestinal inflammation [108], burns of the tongue and esophagus [17] and soft tissue injuries [109].

6. Bioeconomy

Currently, in much of the planet, the linear economy predominates, based on producing, using, and throwing away; only 12% of waste is recycled. These practices generate large monetary losses throughout the world; it is estimated that agroindustry waste represents an economic loss of 800,000 million euros [111]. This is why the circular economy is proposed, in which waste is recycled and reused, minimizing production material and generating less waste [112], and the term “bioeconomy” is introduced, which refers to a promising economic strategy to reduce the environmental impact caused by agroindustry. In countries with an agricultural economic base, such as Colombia, the goal for 2030 is for the bioeconomy to contribute 10% of the gross domestic product by developing more than 500 records of new bioproducts to strengthen value chains [113]. In Europe, it is estimated that the current bioeconomy is worth around 2 trillion euros; while in the UK, the entire bioeconomy, including all activities for the sustainable conversion of biomass into bioproducts, injected a total of €220 billion and supported 5.2 million jobs in 2014. An estimated increase in growth of €440 billion is expected by 2030 in the UK [114].
Within the pineapple bioeconomy is the biorefinery that allows for the manufacturing of various value-added products. These products are a source of income for current industries and respond to emerging environmental challenges. Chemistry plays an important role in environmental safety with the manufacturing of green chemicals within a circular economy [115]. Fossil fuels dominate the world’s primary energy supply, meeting 80% of current global demand, which is projected to increase by 40% by 2035. The economic viability of such biorefineries is evaluated by integrating the fuel/energy production pathways along with those of biochemical and value-added products.
In recent years, different technologies have been used to modify pineapple waste. These wastes are currently used in different industries. Among the most notable products are products for bioremediation, biofuels, and products from pineapple waste fermentation.

6.1. Bioremediation

Different treatments in pineapple waste allow for the elimination of toxic chemical compounds from wastewater from industries. Astuti et al. [13] transformed pineapple crowns into magnetized activated carbon capable of removing the methyl violet dye from contaminated water. Dai et al. [116] made improved hydrogels based on cellulose from pineapple peel for the adsorption of methylene blue. Veeramalai et al. [117] showed the effectiveness of activated carbon from pineapple waste for the elimination of dyes and the immobilization of lipases by adsorption. Paudyal et al. [118] used the core of the pineapple as a biosorbent for the elimination of Fe(II), and Zhuang et al. [42] used pineapple cellulose modified with potassium permanganate as the copper ion absorber. Currently, this area of research is working on improving the adsorption capacity. Research seeks to improve efficiency through new technologies [119].

6.2. Biofuels

Biogas and bioethanol have been made from the highly biodegradable polysaccharide structures of pineapple waste. Recent research has demonstrated the potential of the leaves of the pineapple crop of different varieties, such as Queen, Kew, and Simanchal, for obtaining second-generation fuels using chemical and enzymatic treatments to increase fermentable sugars [12]. Namsree et al. [120] produced biogas through the use of pineapple pulp and peel, with a yield of 0.43 m3/kg chemical oxygen demand. Chen et al. [40] produced 2.1 tons of bioethanol with 125 tons of fresh weight of pineapple leaves, enough to replace 8.51% of the consumption of fossil fuels for transportation in Costa Rica, and Casabar et al. [121] produced bioethanol from pineapple peels with a yield of 5.98 ± 1.01 g/L.

6.3. Products of Solid and Submerged Fermentation

6.3.1. Solid Fermentation

The use of pineapple by-products as support in solid-state fermentation has been studied to synthesize and break covalent bonds to release compounds of high commercial value from the biological matrix (Figure 2). Solid-state fermentation (FES) is a biotechnological process in which organisms grow on non-soluble solid substrates, in the absence or near absence of water. Table 5 shows that with this biotechnological method, the recovery of phenolic compounds and crude protein has been increased, and PHA and organic acids have been synthesized.

6.3.2. Submerged Fermentation

The use of pineapple by-products as a source of nutrients for the growth of microorganisms in submerged fermentation has been a widely used practice in biotechnology to produce enzymes, biofuels, acids, and organic dyes (Table 5).
In submerged fermentation, a lot of water is used for the fermentation process and, therefore, there are some disadvantages concerning solid-state fermentation. However, it has enormous potential for the production of enzymes by filamentous fungi. Solid-state fermentation allows for a better homogeneous culture system, and its raw fermented product can be used directly as enzymatic cocktails for other industries [126].
During the fermentation process of pineapple, important enzymes are produced, such as pectinolytic enzymes, responsible for hydrolyzing proteins, the main polysaccharide present in the cell wall of plants [1]. Enzymes are essential in fermentation processes; they are responsible for allowing fermentation to break bonds in the fermentation support, leaving fermentable material available to the microorganism that was not previously available. Moreover, this same mechanism of action allows for the recovery of compounds with high biological activity, such as phenolic compounds.
Other products obtained from the fermentation of pineapple by-products are pigments, bacterial cellulose, and 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid. Fungal pigments [127] and bacterial pigments (violacein) [124] are produced from pineapple waste, widely used in the industry as a sustainable and environmentally friendly alternative. Bacterial cellulose is a cellulose produced during acetic fermentation with superior properties to plant cellulose [128]. The 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid is the basis for the production of plastic; according to Omana et al. [129], this is produced through fermentation by Aspergillus flavus of pineapple waste, mitigating the pollution caused by conventional production.
The amount of acetic acid produced from the fermentation of pineapple by-products is similar to that obtained from the fermentation of glucose [130]. Acetic acid has applications in the food industry as a seasoning or preservative and is useful in rural areas of developing countries to preserve food.
Citric acid and lactic acid can be produced by fermentation from pineapple by-products. Subramaniyan et al. [131] and Abdullah [48] showed that pineapple by-products are a good support for synthesizing citric acid and lactic acid, respectively. Citric acid is one of the most widely used fermented products in the world; it is estimated that about 10,000 tons are produced annually to supply the demand for it, mainly in the food and pharmaceutical industries [132]. Lactic acid is widely used in the food industry as a flavor enhancer, pH regulator, preservative or buffering agent, and in the chemical industry it is used as a solvent, pH regulator, and as a raw material for biodegradable polymers [133].
Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) is a PHA that has been synthesized using pineapple by-products as a carbon source. Sukruansuwan & Napathorn [125] hydrolyzed pineapple by-products with phosphoric acid and synthesized PHB by fermenting pineapple core and peel, extracting up to 57.2 ± 1.0 g/L and 28.6 ± 0.6, respectively. Vega-Castro et al. [11] produced PHA from pineapple peel and obtained a combination of 40% PHB and 60% Polyhydroxyvalerate (PHV), and Sangkharak et al. [134] purified PHA from bromelain.
Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are microbial polyesters that are synthesized and accumulated in a wide variety of microorganisms as an internal storage energy source. The biggest drawback is its high cost of production and purification [134].

7. Technological Perspective

From pineapple, essential molecules can be obtained for the optimal functioning of the human body and functional compounds for the food and pharmaceutical industries [10]. Fermentation in the solid and liquid state [122], the use of hydrostatic pressure [135], ultrasound [136], microwave-assisted [137] and heat treatments [5] are environmentally friendly methodologies, which provide the opportunity to take advantage of a large part of these biocomposites found in organic waste such as pineapple waste. At the end of the fermentation, using pineapple by-products as support material, compounds of high biological value, such as phenolic compounds and organic acids, are obtained [8].
Pineapple waste is also a good source of strong and inexpensive fibers; it can be used in food as a functional ingredient and for biodegradable packaging and edible films [138]. The latest studies for the recovery of fibers from pineapple affirm that chemical treatments with organic compounds are highly effective in obtaining fiber of high economic value and producing a low amount of polluting residues [9]. In the same way, recent studies show that the addition of pineapple waste to the diet of animals improves various characteristics of these animals [139].

8. Conclusions

Pineapple residues are an important source of phenolic compounds, organic acids, fibers, and enzymes. Their high content of phenolic compounds and bromelain gives them biological properties such as antioxidant, anticancer, and antimicrobial capacities. Since recent studies focus mainly on proteins and phenols present in pineapple residues and by-products, the reason why to continue researching and disseminating the prop-erties of the other compounds in these biological materials.

Author Contributions

Writing—review & editing, Visualization, Investigation, S.L.P.-A.; Conceptualization, Supervision, Validation, E.C.-C.; Supervision, Validation, L.S.-C.; Supervision, Validation, C.N.A.; Writing—review & editing, Conceptualization, Supervision, Validation C.T.-L. and R.G.-G. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Acknowledgments

The author Sarah L. Paz-Arteaga wishes to thank the Universidad Nacional de Colombia for the scholarship granted to develop master’s studies in biotechnology science (resolution 012 of 2020) and the industrial designer Lady Stefany Paz Valderrama for the support with the design of the figures.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Sustainability 16 07236 g001
Figure 1. By-product generation chain (crown, core, and shell) and food loss (stem and leaves) of pineapple.
Figure 1. By-product generation chain (crown, core, and shell) and food loss (stem and leaves) of pineapple.
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Sustainability 16 07236 g002
Figure 2. Pineapple by-product fermentation process.
Figure 2. Pineapple by-product fermentation process.
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Table 1. Proximal composition of the waste from different varieties of pineapple (dry basis).
Table 1. Proximal composition of the waste from different varieties of pineapple (dry basis).
SourceProtein (%)Lipids (%)Total Carbohydrates (%)Ashes (%)References
Peel
Colombia (Gold MD2)0.80 6.65 [51]
Colombia (Gold MD2)0.630.2127.08 [11]
India3.13 3.88[52]
India 35.0010.60[53]
India (Indian Kew)3.90 5.90[39]
India (Smooth Cayenne)5.115.3155.524.39[54]
Nigeria (Smooth Cayenne)2.85 74.08 6.80[55]
Sri lanka (Mauritius)5.042.7843.95 [56]
Brazil8.801.10 1.50[57]
Mexico0.752.00 1.50[58]
Core
Colombia (Gold MD2)0.40 7.21 [51]
Sri lanka (Mauritius)3.672.3583.03 [56]
Mexico0.853.17 1.30[58]
Crown
Mexico0.703.50 7.37[58]
Brazil 5.20[9]
Pomace
Costa Rica (Gold MD2)4.710.6143.462.24[59]
Leaf
Costa Rica 6.903.00 6.10[40]
Malaysia 2.00[60]
India 0.90[61]
Table 2. Lignocellulosic content and its constituents of pineapple waste.
Table 2. Lignocellulosic content and its constituents of pineapple waste.
SourceTotal Fiber (%)Lignin (%)Hemicellulos (%)Cellulose (%)Pectin (%)References
Peel
India 11.527.0011.206.70[52]
India 11.7019.80 [53]
India (Indian Kew) 10.431.8020.90 [32]
India (Smooth Cayenne)14.80 [54]
Nigeria (Smooth Cayenne)13.96 [55]
Sri lanka (Mauritius)42.02 [56]
Brazil16.30 [57]
Mexico65.00 10.0128.6940.552.49[58]
Core
Sri lanka (Mauritius)9.14 [56]
Mexico47.605.78 28.5324.531.58[58]
Crown
Mexico62.5013.8821.8843.532.32[58]
Brazil 24.3019.1017.40 [9]
India (Giant Kew) 21.0041.10 [62]
Leaf
Costa Rica 7.3026.1022.60 [40]
Malaysia 10.50 73.40 [60]
India 6.04 68.501.10[61]
Table 3. Phenolic compounds and other metabolites isolated from MD2 pineapple by-products (Ananas comosus [L.] Merr.) a identified with the HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS technique.
Table 3. Phenolic compounds and other metabolites isolated from MD2 pineapple by-products (Ananas comosus [L.] Merr.) a identified with the HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS technique.
Rt (min)N b (m/z)CompoundsParts of the Fruit
PeelCrown
8.1472Glutathione derivative ●
13.0371Caffeoyl aldarate●●
11.4355p-Coumaroyl aldaratec●●
12.22894-Hydroxy-2,5-dimethyl-3(2H)-furanone-hexoside●
14.6385Feruloyl aldarate ●●
15.53601-(1H-Pyrrole-2-carboxyl)-glucuronosylglycerol●●
16.1341Caffeoyl hexoside●
20.7331Galloyl hexoside●
22.53535-Caffeoylquinic acid (chlorogenic acid) ●
23.1355Feruloyl hexoside●●
24.5385Sinapoyl hexoside●
24.6253Caffeoylglycerol●
26.0660S-Sinapylglutathione derivative●
29.4438S-p-Coumarylglutathione●
32.5337p-Coumaroylisocitrate or quinic acid●●
33.1411N-L-γ-Glutamyl-S-coniferyl-L-cysteine●
33.9441N-L-γ-Glutamyl-S-sinapyl-L-cysteine●
34.0367Feruloylisocitrate or quinic acid●●
36.6625Quercetin dihexoside ●
37.6579Syringaresinol hexoside●
40.0463Quercetin hexoside ●
43.8623Isorhametin rhamosyl-hexoside●
44.8415Dicaffeoylglycerol●●
47.2399p-Coumaroyl-caffeoylglycerol●
47.4429Feruloyl-caffeoylglycerol●●
49.4413p-Coumaroyl-feruloylglycerol●●
a Taken from Steingass et al. [72]. b m/z of [M-H] −.
Table 4. Antioxidants and phenolic compounds in pineapple by-products.
Table 4. Antioxidants and phenolic compounds in pineapple by-products.
By-ProductsTotal Phenols aDPPH.ABTS.+References
Pulp, peel, core, and crown1.1286.00 b [8]
Peel and crown120.904.80 c7.70 c[67]
Pulp, peel, core, and crown3.0086.90 b [82]
Crown5.800.05 c0.10 c[80]
Peel4.30 [88]
Peel and Core 27.40 b57.10 b[89]
Peel3.00209.60 d [31]
Core1.5793.40 d
Peel 69.00 b[90]
Peel68.3078.10 b [91]
a Expressed as mg of gallic acid/g dry substrate. b Expressed as inhibitory percentage. c Expressed as μM Trolox/g. d Expressed as mg ascorbic acid equivalent/100 g. All the results are presented on a dry basis.
Table 5. Products of submerged fermentation of pineapple by-products.
Table 5. Products of submerged fermentation of pineapple by-products.
Solid Fermentation
WasteMicroorganismProductUnfermented MaterialFermented MaterialReferences
Pulp, peel, core, and crownKluyveromyces marxianusPhenolic compounds (mg GAE/g)1.12 1.20 [8]
Pulp, peel, core, and crownRhizopus oligosporusPhenolic compounds (mg GAE/g)3.00 5.20 [82]
PeelTrichoderma viride ATCC 36316Crude protein (%)4.53 14.89[55]
PeelRalsthonia eutrophaPolyhydroxyalkanoates (mg/100 g) 44 [11]
Pulp, peel, core, and crownRhizopus oryzae NRRL 395Lactic acid (mg/g) 103.69[10]
PeelAspergillus oryzaeFructooligosaccharides (g/L) 4.15 [122]
Submerged Fermentation
StemBacillus subtilis BKDS1Pectinase (U/mL) 1508.50 [1]
LeafSaccharomyces cerevisiae (SA-1)Bioethanol (g/L) 15.24 [123]
PeelSaccharomyces cerevisiaeBioetanol (g/L) 30.77[121]
PeelLactobacillus rhamnosus GGLactic acid (g/L) 2.63 [90]
Pediococcus pentosaceus UAM22Acetic acid (g/L) 0.49
Propionic acid (g/L) 0.15
Pulp, peel, core, and crownLactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. delbrueckii ATCC 9649Lactic acid (g/L) 13.10 [48]
Pulp, peel, core, and crownChromobacterium violaceumViolacein (mg/L) 5790[124]
Peel and coreCupriavidus necator cepa A-04Polyhydroxybutyrate (g/L) 57.20 [125]
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Paz-Arteaga, S.L.; Cadena-Chamorro, E.; Goméz-García, R.; Serna-Cock, L.; Aguilar, C.N.; Torres-León, C. Unraveling the Valorization Potential of Pineapple Waste to Obtain Value-Added Products towards a Sustainable Circular Bioeconomy. Sustainability 2024, 16, 7236. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167236

AMA Style

Paz-Arteaga SL, Cadena-Chamorro E, Goméz-García R, Serna-Cock L, Aguilar CN, Torres-León C. Unraveling the Valorization Potential of Pineapple Waste to Obtain Value-Added Products towards a Sustainable Circular Bioeconomy. Sustainability. 2024; 16(16):7236. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167236

Chicago/Turabian Style

Paz-Arteaga, Sarah L., Edith Cadena-Chamorro, Ricardo Goméz-García, Liliana Serna-Cock, Cristóbal N. Aguilar, and Cristian Torres-León. 2024. "Unraveling the Valorization Potential of Pineapple Waste to Obtain Value-Added Products towards a Sustainable Circular Bioeconomy" Sustainability 16, no. 16: 7236. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167236

APA Style

Paz-Arteaga, S. L., Cadena-Chamorro, E., Goméz-García, R., Serna-Cock, L., Aguilar, C. N., & Torres-León, C. (2024). Unraveling the Valorization Potential of Pineapple Waste to Obtain Value-Added Products towards a Sustainable Circular Bioeconomy. Sustainability, 16(16), 7236. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167236

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