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Systematic Review

Riboflavin- and Hypericin-Mediated Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy as Alternative Treatments for Oral Candidiasis: A Systematic Review

1
Department of Periodontal Diseases and Oral Mucosa Diseases, Faculty of Medical Sciences in Zabrze, Medical University of Silesia, 40-055 Katowice, Poland
2
Faculty of Medical Sciences in Zabrze, Medical University of Silesia, 40-055 Katowice, Poland
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Pharmaceutics 2025, 17(1), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics17010033 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 7 December 2024 / Revised: 22 December 2024 / Accepted: 24 December 2024 / Published: 28 December 2024
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Products in Photodynamic Therapy)

Abstract

Background: Oral candidiasis, predominantly caused by Candida albicans, presents significant challenges in treatment due to increasing antifungal resistance and biofilm formation. Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) using natural photosensitizers like riboflavin and hypericin offers a potential alternative to conventional antifungal therapies. Material and Methods: A systematic review was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of riboflavin- and hypericin-mediated aPDT in reducing Candida infections. The PRISMA framework guided the selection and analysis of 16 eligible studies published between 2014 and 2024. Data on light parameters, photosensitizer concentrations, and outcomes were extracted to assess antifungal effects. Results: Both riboflavin- and hypericin-mediated aPDT demonstrated significant antifungal activity, achieving substantial reductions in Candida biofilm and planktonic cell viability. Riboflavin activated by blue light and hypericin activated by yellow or orange light effectively targeted fluconazole-resistant Candida strains with minimal cytotoxicity to host tissues. However, complete biofilm eradication remained challenging, and variations in protocols highlighted the need for standardization. Conclusions: Riboflavin- and hypericin-mediated aPDT present promising, biocompatible alternatives for managing antifungal resistance in Candida infections. Further clinical trials and standardized protocols are essential to optimize outcomes and confirm efficacy in broader clinical settings.
Keywords: aPDT; biofilm; Candida; denture stomatitis; diode laser; planktonic cells aPDT; biofilm; Candida; denture stomatitis; diode laser; planktonic cells

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Łopaciński, M.; Fiegler-Rudol, J.; Niemczyk, W.; Skaba, D.; Wiench, R. Riboflavin- and Hypericin-Mediated Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy as Alternative Treatments for Oral Candidiasis: A Systematic Review. Pharmaceutics 2025, 17, 33. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics17010033

AMA Style

Łopaciński M, Fiegler-Rudol J, Niemczyk W, Skaba D, Wiench R. Riboflavin- and Hypericin-Mediated Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy as Alternative Treatments for Oral Candidiasis: A Systematic Review. Pharmaceutics. 2025; 17(1):33. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics17010033

Chicago/Turabian Style

Łopaciński, Maciej, Jakub Fiegler-Rudol, Wojciech Niemczyk, Dariusz Skaba, and Rafał Wiench. 2025. "Riboflavin- and Hypericin-Mediated Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy as Alternative Treatments for Oral Candidiasis: A Systematic Review" Pharmaceutics 17, no. 1: 33. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics17010033

APA Style

Łopaciński, M., Fiegler-Rudol, J., Niemczyk, W., Skaba, D., & Wiench, R. (2025). Riboflavin- and Hypericin-Mediated Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy as Alternative Treatments for Oral Candidiasis: A Systematic Review. Pharmaceutics, 17(1), 33. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics17010033

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